Columbus Board of Education v. Penick Brief Amici Curiae

    I n  th e

£>uprntt£ (Emtrt of tin' Inttefr Btatvz
October Term, 1978 

No. 78-610

Columbus B oard o f  E ducation, et al.,
Petitioners,

v.

Gary L. Penick, et al.

No. 78-627
Dayton B oard of E ducation, et al.,

Petitioners,
v .

Mark B rinkman, et al.

ON W R IT S  OE CERTIORARI TO T H E  U N IT E D  STATES 
COURT OE A PPEALS FOR T H E  S IX T H  C IR C U IT

BRIEF OF THE NAACP LEGAL DEFENSE AND 
EDUCATIONAL FUND, INC., AND THE INTERNATIONAL 

UNION, UNITED AUTOMOBILE, AEROSPACE AND 
AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENT WORKERS OF AMERICA 

AS AMICI CURIAE

J oseph L. R auh, Jr. Jack Greenberg
J ohn Silard J ames M. Nabrit, III
E lliott C. L ichtman B ill Lann Lee

Ranh, Silard and Lichtman Suite 2030 
1001 Connecticut Avenue, N.W. 10 Columbus Circle 
Washington, D. C. 20036 New York, N. Y . 10019

John P illion 
United Auto Workers 
8000 East Jefferson Avenue 
Detroit, Mich. 48214 

Attorneys for Amici Curiae

March, 1979



I N D E X

PAGE

In t e r e s t  o f  Amici 1

Ar gume n t :

In tro d u ct io n 3

I.  The Court Of Appea ls '  Findings
Of C o n s t i t u t i o n a l  V i o la t i o n s  Are 
Consistent  With This C ourt ' s  
Pr ior  Dec is ions  .................................. 7

A. The Dayton and Columbus
School  Boards Maintained 
I n t e n t i o n a l ly  Segregated 
Systems Pr ior  to the Brown 
D ec is ion  and Fa i led  to Take 
A f f i rm a t iv e  Steps to Desegre­
gate P r ior  to These Lawsuits . . .  7

B. In A dd it io n  to the F a i lure  t o ’
Take A f f i r m a t iv e  A ct ions  to 
Desegregate Dayton and Columbus 
Fo l lowing  Brown, the School  
Boards Maintained R a c ia l l y  
Segregated Systems by 
Aggravating Discr iminatory
Acts ...........................................................  17

I I .  The Sixth C i r c u i t  Has Properly 
Applied The Equitable  P r i n c i p l e  
That A Remedy Must Be Reasonably 
Related To The V i o la t i o n  .......................  24

A. The Dayton I Requirement o f  
Findings o f  Incremental  
Segregative E f f e c t  Should 
Either  Be Interpre ted  in 
Harmony with Keyes, as the Sixth 
C i r c u i t  Read I t ,  or  I t  Should
Be Overruled 24

l



B. These Cases W i l l  Determine the 
Future o f  School  Desegregation 
in the North .........................................  31

Conclus ion .............................................................................  35

Table o f  A u t h o r i t i e s

Cases:

Brown v. Board o f  Education,  347 U.S.
483 .........................................................................  2 , 3 , 4 , 5 ,

6 , 7 , 8 . 9 ,  
11 ,13 ,1 4 ,  
16 ,17 ,1 9 ,

Clemons v.  Board o f  Education o f  H i l l s b o r o ,
Ohio, 228 F .2d 853 ( 6th C ir .  1956) . . .  13

C i v i l  Rights Cases,  109 U.S. 3 .........................  34

Columbus Board o f  Education v. Penick,
58 L Ed 2d 55 ....................................... ............  27

Davis v.  School  Commissioners o f  Mobile
County, 402 U.S. 33 ..................................  31

Dayton Board o f  Education v. Brinkman,
433 U.S. 406 .............................................. 5 , 6 , 2 0 , 2 4 ,

25 ,26 ,2 7 ,
28,29

Green v. County School  Board, 391
U.S. 430 ..................................................... 2 , 4 , 5 , 7 , 1 5 ,

16,29,30

Keyes v.  School D i s t r i c t  No. 1, Denver,
Colorado,  413 U.S. 189................. 2 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 9 , 1 4 ,

1 5 ,1 7 ,2 4 ,2 7 ,2 8 ,
2 9 ,3 0 ,3 2 ,3 3 ,3 4

PAGE

-  i i  -



M il l ik e n  v. Bradley, 418 U.S. 755 ..............  33

Plessy  v .  Ferguson, 163 U.S 537 ..................... 34

Poindexter  v. Greenhow, 114 U.S.
270 .........................................................................  30

Swann v. Char lotte-Mecklenburg Board
o f  Education,  402 U.S. 1 .......................  2 , 4 , 5 , 7 ,

9 ,16 ,17 ,
30,31,32

United States  v .  Montgomery County 
Board o f  Education,
395 U.S. 225 ................................................  4

Other A u th o r i t i e s

S i l a r d ,  Toward Nationwide School
Desegregat ion :  A "Compell ing State
I n t e r e s t "  Test o f  Rac ial  Concentra­
t i o n  in Publ ic  Educat ion , 5l 
N. Car. L. Rev. 675 (1973) ..................  33

Wright,  Publ ic  School  D e seg reg at ion :
Legal Remedies f o r  De Facto 
S eg reg at ion , 40 N.Y.U. L. Rev.
285 (1965)  ..................................................  33

U.S Comm, on C i v i l  Rights,
DESEGREGATION OF THE NATION'S 
PUBLIC SCHOOLS: A STATUS REPORT
(Feb. 1979)

PAGE

-  i i i  -

31,32



IN THE
SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES 

OCTOBER TERM, 1978 
No. 78-610

COLUMBUS BOARD OF EDUCATION, et  a l . ,

P e t i t i o n e r s ,

GARY L. PENICK, et  a l .

No. 78-627

DAYTON BOARD OF EDUCATION, et  a l . ,

P e t i t i o n e r s ,

-  v -

MARK BRINKMAN, e t  a l .

On Writs Of C e r t i o r a r i  To The United States 
Court Of Appeals For The Sixth C i r cu i t

BRIEF OF THE NAACP LEGAL DEFENSE AND EDUCATIONAL 
FUND, INC., AND THE INTERNATIONAL UNION, UNITED 
AUTOMOBILE, AEROSPACE AND AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENT 

WORKERS OF AMERICA AS AMICI CURIAE

I n t e r e s t  o f  Amici*

The NAACP Legal  Defense and Educational  Fund, 
I n c . ,  i s  a n o n - p r o f i t  c o r p o r a t i o n  e s t a b l i s h e d

^Letters  o f  the p a r t i e s  consenting  to  the f i l i n g  
o f  th is  b r i e f  by amici have been f i l e d  with the 
Clerk.



2

under the laws o f  the State o f  New York. I t  was 

formed to  a s s i s t  black  persons to  secure  th e i r  

c o n s t i t u t i o n a l  r i g h t s  by the p r o s e c u t i o n  o f  
lawsuits .  I t s  charter  de c la r e s  that i t s  purposes 

inc lu de  rendering l e g a l  s e r v i ce s  g r a t u i t o u s ly  to 
black  persons s u f f e r i n g  i n j u s t i c e  by reason of  

r a c i a l  d i s c r im in a t io n .  (The Legal  Defense Fund 
i s  not par t  o f  the N a t i o n a l  A s s o c i a t i o n  f o r  

the Advancement o f  Colored People ( NAACP) although 
i t  was founded by i t  and shares i t s  commitment to 

equal  r i g h t s .  The Legal  Defense Fund has had f o r  
over 20 years a separate board,  program, s t a f f ,  

o f f i c e  and b u d g e t . )  For  many y e a r s  a t t o r n e y s  
a s s o c i a t e d  w i t h  the L e g a l  D e f e n s e  Fund have 

represente d  black  parents and s c h o o l  c h i ld r e n  in 
s c h o o l  desegregat ion  l i t i g a t i o n  b e f o r e  t h i s  Court 
and numerous lower c o u r t s ,  see,  e . g . ,  Brown v.  
Board o f  Educati on , 347 U.S. 483;  Green v.  County 

School  Board, 391 U.S. 430; Swann v.  C h a r l o t t e -  

Mecklenburg Board o f  Educat ion . 402 U.S. 1; Keyes 

v .  S c h o o l  D i s t r i c t  No. 1, Denver, C o lorado , 413 

U.S. 189. The Legal  Defense Fund b e l i e v e s  that  

i t s  e x p e r i e n c e  g a in e d  in  p r o s e c u t i n g  s c h o o l  
desegregat ion  ac t ion s  and a s s i s t i n g  in the deseg­

re g a t io n  process in schoo l  d i s t r i c t s  throughout 
the Nation may b e n e f i t  the Court in dec id ing  the 
instant cases .



3

The In t e r n a t i o n a l  Union, United Automobile,  
Aerospace and A g r i c u l t u r a l  Implement Workers o f  
America (UAW) represents  some 1,500,000 a c t i v e  

workers,  and t h e i r  f a m i l i e s ,  in the automobile ,  

a e r o s p a c e ,  a g r i c u l t u r a l  implement and r e l a t e d  

i n d u s t r i e s .  Inc luding spouses and c h i ld r e n ,  UAW 

r e p r e s e n t s  more than 4 - 1 / 2  m i l l i o n  p e r s o n s  
throughout the United States and Canada. The UAW, 

s in ce  i t s  founding days back in the m id - 3 0 ' s ,  has 

worked d i l i g e n t l y  against  a l l  forms o f  d i s c r im in a ­

t i o n  and r a c i s m  and in  f a v o r  o f  an e v e r  more 
i n t e g r a t e d  s o c i e t y .  UAW b e l i e v e s  i n  s c h o o l  

i n t e g r a t i o n  i n  a l l  a r e a s  o f  the N a t i o n  and i s  
d e e p l y  c o n c e r n e d  l e s t  the  C o u r t ' s  d e c i s i o n  in 

these cases turn back the c l o c k  on school  desegre ­

g a t i o n  i n  the N orth .  UAW i s  d e d i c a t e d  t o  an 
i n d u s t r i a l  s o c i e t y  in  which  b l a c k  and w h i t e  

workers l i v e  in  harmony in the m i l l s  and f a c t o r i e s  

and b e l i e v e s  t h a t  a s o c i e t y  s e p a r a t e d  i n  the 
schoo ls  w i l l  never be a s o c i e t y  in tegrated  in the 
m i l l s  and f a c t o r i e s .

ARGUMENT

In tro d u ct io n

A q u a r t e r  c e n t u r y  a f t e r  Brown v.  Board o f  
Education , 347 U.S. 483, these cases bring the 
Court and Nation to an important c r o ss in g  in the



-  4

road to  the e l im in a t i o n  o f  r a c i a l  se g re g at io n  in 

p u b l i c  s c h o o l s .  We urge the Court to a f f i r m  the 

d e c i s i o n s  of  the Court o f  Appeals f o r  the Sixth 

C i r c u i t ,  which has f o l low ed  th is  C ou r t ' s  d e c i ­

s i o n s ,  and to r e s i s t  the demands o f  p e t i t i o n e r s  

f o r  r e s t r i c t i v e  r u le s  which w i l l  have the p r a c t i ­
c a l  e f f e c t  o f  preserv ing  r a c i a l  se g re g at io n  in the 

schoo ls  by e f f e c t i v e l y  pre c lu d in g  i t s  e l im in a t i o n .
One m a jo r  t h r u s t  o f  t h i s  C o u r t ' s  l e a d i n g  

d e c i s i o n s  implementing Brown has been an emphasis 

on p r a c t i c a l  r e m e d i a l  r u l e s  which a c t u a l l y  
r e s u l t  in the e l im in a t i o n  o f  se g re g at io n .  That i s  

the major c o n t r ib u t i o n  o f  such d e c i s i o n s  as Green 

v .  County S c h o o l  B o a r d , 391 U .S .  430 ,  U n ited  
S t a t e s  v .  Montgomery County Board o f  Educati on , 

395 U.S. 225, Swann v.  Char lotte-Mecklenburg Board 
o f  E d u c a t i o n , 402 U .S .  1, and Keyes v .  S c h o o l  
D i s t r i c t  No. 1, Denver, C o lorado , 413 U.S. 189. 

P r i o r  t o  Green and Swann the h o l d i n g  o f  Brown 

o f t e n  e x is t e d  as a r i g h t  without a remedy. A f te r  
Green and Swann many communities desegregated  f o r  

the f i r s t  time because o f  the new emphasis on the 

a f f i r m a t iv e  duty to  desegregate by means such as 
t h o s e  app roved  in  Swann. Keyes a p p l i e d  t h e s e  

p r i n c i p l e s  to a northern sch oo l  d i s t r i c t  which had 
pervasive se g re g at io n  caused by o f f i c i a l  p o l i c i e s



5

without the san c t ion  o f  s t a t e  s ta t u t e .  Although 

se g r e g a t io n  in the Denver s ch o o ls  in Keyes was not 

t o t a l  as i t  had been in Green and Swann, the Court 
h e l d  t h a t  s u b s t a n t i a l  s y s t e m i c  d i s c r i m i n a t i o n  

would c a l l  f o r  a systemwide desegreg at ion  decree .  
Keyes thus guided lower fe d e r a l  courts  in d e t e r ­

mining when to  ho ld  a p a r t i a l l y  segregated  north ­
ern sch o o l  system to  be equ iva lent  t o ,  and sub jec t  

to the same remedies as,  a c l a s s i c  dual system. 
The Sixth C i r c u i t  has f a i t h f u l l y  app l ied the Keyes 

ru les  in these Ohio cases .
The Columbus and Dayton schoo l  boards ask the 

Court t o  make a fundamental turn away from the 
course i t  charted from Brown to  Keyes■ Indeed, 
they  se e k  t o  r e v e r s e  Keyes by b u i l d i n g  upon a 

passage in the C ou rt ' s  1977 Dayton I op in ion  which 
a c t u a l ly  c i t e d  Keyes:

"The duty o f  both the D i s t r i c t  Court and 
the Court o f  Appeals in a case  such as t h i s ,  
where mandatory  s e g r e g a t i o n  by law o f  the  
races in sch oo ls  has long s in c e  ceased,  i s  to  
f i r s t  determine whether there was any a c t i o n  
i n  t h e  c o n d u c t  o f  t h e  b u s i n e s s  o f  t h e  
s ch o o l  board which was intended t o ,  and did 
i n  f a c t ,  d i s c r i m i n a t e  a g a i n s t  m i n o r i t y  
p u p i l s ,  t e ach e rs ,  or  s t a f f .  Washington v. 
Davis,  supra. A l l  p a r t i e s  should be f r e e  to  
introduce  such a d d i t i o n a l  testimony and other 
e v i d e n c e  as the  D i s t r i c t  Court  may deem 
appropr ia te .  I f  such v i o l a t i o n s  are found,



-  6

the  D i s t r i c t  Court  i n  the  f i r s t  i n s t a n c e ,  
s u b j e c t  t o  review by the Court o f  Appeals,  
must determine how much incremental  s e g re g a ­
t i v e  e f f e c t  t h e s e  v i o l a t i o n s  had on the  
r a c i a l  d i s t r i b u t i o n  o f  t h e  Dayton s c h o o l  
p o p u l a t i o n  as p r e s e n t l y  c o n s t i t u t e d ,  when 
t h a t  d i s t r i b u t i o n  i s  compared t o  what i t  
would  have been  in  the a b s e n c e  o f  such 
c o n s t i t u t i o n a l  v i o l a t i o n s .  The remedy must 
be designed to redress that  d i f f e r e n c e ,  and 
only i f  there has been a systemwide impact 
may there  be a systemwide remedy. Keyes, 413 
U .S . ,  at 213. (Dayton Board o f  Education v . 
Brinkman, 433 U.S. 406, 4 20 . )

The p e t i t i o n e r s  would turn the " incremental  
se g r e g a t iv e  e f f e c t "  language o f  Dayton I in t o  a 

ru le  that would measure the r igh ts  o f  m in o r i t i e s  
with a "micrometer"  -  t o  borrow Judge W ein s te in ' s  

apt word.—̂ I f  th is  Court i n t e r p r e t e d  the " i n c r e ­
m enta l  e f f e c t "  r e q u i r e m e n t  as a f u l l - f l e d g e d  

r e t r e a t  from Keyes i t  would turn i t s  back on the 
problem o f  se g re g at io n  by adm in is tra t ive  p r a c t i c e  

and p o l i c i e s  in those communities which never had 

s ta t u t o ry  s ch o o l  s e g r e g a t io n .  Such a r e t r e a t  from 

Keyes would cut o f f  any hope o f  i n t e g r a t i n g  the 

schoo ls  o f  many o f  our n a t i o n ' s  communities and 

represent a t r a g i c  turning  away from Brown. The 

Sixth C i r c u i t  read Dayton I in a way which harmon-

1/ Judge Jack B. W e in s te in ' s  as yet  unpublished 
speech at the Benjamin N. Cardozo School  o f  Law 
c r i t i c i z e d  ru l in gs  which "measure compassion f o r  
m i n o r i t i e s  and the  p oor  w i th  a m i c r o m e t e r . "



7

ized  i t s  language with Keyes, Swann and Green and

r e j e c t e d  the c a l l  f o r  a fundamental r e t r e a t  in the

e f f o r t  t o  v i n d i c a t e  the r ig h t  to  a nondiscr imina -

tory  p u b l i c  educati on .  We submit,  in the argument

which f o l l o w s ,  that  the Sixth C i r cu i t  was e n t i r e l y

c o r r e c t  in f in d in g  c o n s t i t u t i o n a l  v i o l a t i o n s  in

both case s ,  and in conc lu d in g  that  the v i o l a t i o n s

were s u f f i c i e n t l y  s u b s t a n t ia l  in t h e i r  e f f e c t s  as
to  demand system at ic ,  and not piecemeal ,  remedies.

The Court Of Appeal 's  Findings o f  C on st i tu ­
t i o n a l  V i o l a t i o n s  Are Co n s i s t e n t  With This 
C ou rt ' s  P r ior  D e c i s i o n s .

A. The Dayton and Columbus S c h o o l  Boards 
M a i n t a in e d  I n t e n t i o n a l l y  S e g r e g a t e d  
Systems P r i o r  To The Brown D e c i s i o n  
And F a i l e d  To Take A f f i r m a t i v e  S tep s  
To Desegregate Pr ior  To These Lawsuits.

Two unanimous p a n e l s  o f  the  S i x t h  C i r c u i t  
found that  the Columbus and Dayton school  boards 

had engaged  i n  i n t e n t i o n a l  r a c i a l  s e g r e g a t i o n  

in v i o l a t i o n  o f  the Equal P r o t e c t i o n  Clause o f  the 
Fourteenth Amendment. A common feature  o f  the two 

cases ,  found by both panels ,  i s  that the school  

systems were d i s c r im in ato ry  at the time o f  Brown 

and that  steps to  desegregate them had never been 
undertaken by the schoo l  a u t h o r i t i e s .  The 1954



8

s e g r e g a t i o n  was e x t e n s i v e ,  a f f e c t i n g  at  l e a s t  

54 percent o f  Dayton's  b lack  pupil s  and 46 percent  

o f  Columbus'  b l a c k  e l e m e n t a r y  and j u n i o r  h ig h  

p u p i l s ,  and th e  p r e s e n t  s e g r e g a t i o n  can  be 

d i r e c t l y  tr aced  to  that foundation .  See i n f r a .

Columbus.
In the Columbus c a s e  the pa n e l  (Ju dges  

Edwards, L ive ly  and M e r r i t t )  he ld  that  the f a i l u r e  
to desegregate  the pre-1954 dn jure  system would 

have been a s u f f i c i e n t  bas is  t o  a f f i r m  the d i s ­
t r i c t  c o u r t ' s  f in d in g  o f  present u n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l  

s e g r e g a t i o n  even i f  t h e r e  had been no o t h e r  

p r o o f .  (Of course there was ex tens ive  p r o o f  o f  
recent s e g r e g a t iv e  a c t i o n s  as w e l l ,  as we s h a l l  

d i s cu ss  b e l o w . )  D i s t r i c t  Judge Duncan's c a r e f u l  
an a lys i s  o f  p r e -Brown se g re g at io n  (429 F. Supp. at 
234-238) i s  b r i e f l y  summarized by the Court o f  

Appeals (583 F.2d at 796-799) ,  which observed that 
Judge Duncan's f in d in g  that the Columbus system 

was dual and unlawful  in  1954 were not s e r i o u s l y
c h a l l e n g e d  in  the  b r i e f s  or  o r a l  argument on

2 /appeal .  583 F.2d at 798.— Sim i lar ly  in th is

2 /  The "en c lave  o f  separate,  b lack  s c h o o l s , "  
i . e . ,  Champion Junior High School and four elemen- 
tary s c h o o l s ,  Mount Vernon, G a r f i e ld ,  Fel ton  and 
P i lg r im ,  was c r e a te d ,  maintained and expanded from 
1909 forward in e a s t - c e n t r a l  Columbus through the 
use o f  c l a s s i c  segregatory  d e v i c e s  such as the 
ass ig n m e n t  o f  f a c u l t y  and s t a f f  on r a c i a l l y  
i d e n t i f i a b l e  bases,  gerrymandering o f  zones,  and



9

Court the board devotes but two paragraphs o f  i t s  

over f o r t y - p a g e  f a c t  statement to  the pre-1954 

e r a ,  d i s m i s s i n g  t h e  s e g r e g a t o r y  p r a c t i c e s  as 
" r e p r e h e n s i b l e "  but  w i t h o u t  c u r r e n t  impact  
on the system. P e t i t i o n e r s '  B r i e f ,  No. 78-610,  p. 

39. However, the Courts below demonstrated that  

the " r e p r e h e n s i b l e "  d i s c r im in a t io n  was d i r e c t l y  
connected to  current c o n d i t i o n s .  By the time o f  

Brown the Board had created  "an enclave o f  f i v e  
a l l - b l a c k  schoo ls  which d e l i b e r a t e l y  i s o l a t e d  a 

s u b s ta n t ia l  po r t i o n  o f  the b lack  c h i ld r e n  in the 
system in  a l l - b l a c k  s c h o o l s  a l l  with black  p r i n c i ­

pals and a heavy c o n c e n t r a t io n  o f  black  teachers .  
Although se g re g at io n  in Columbus schoo ls  was not 

t o t a l  in 1954, the Court o f  Appeals found that 

i n t e n t i o n a l  seg reg at ion  did  a f f e c t  "a su bs tan t ia l  

p o r t i o n  o f  b lack  students ,  as shown by the D is ­
t r i c t  Judge 's  f ind ings  and as supported by the 

r e c o r d . "  583 F .2d  at  801.  A p p r o x i m a t e l y  46 
percent o f  b lack  elementary and ju n ior  high pupil s

2/  C o n t 'd .

the use o f  o p t i o n a l  zones.  See, Keyes v. School  
D i s t r i c t  No. 1 , supra , 413 U.S. at 201-202; Swann 
v .  Char 1 o 11  e - M e c k 1enburg  Board o f  E d u c a t i o n , 
s u p r a , 402 U .S .  at 2 0 - 2 1 .  The d i s t r i c t  c o u r t  
express ly  noted that  " [ d ] efendants do not appear 
to  asse r t  that these r e s u l t s  were an accommodation 
to the neighborhood sch oo l  c o n c e p t . "  429 F. Supp. 
at 236.



10

in the system attended these  f i v e  de jure  s e g r e -
3/  --------------gated s c h o o l s . — The co u r ts  below found that the

1975-76 p u p i l  assignment f i g u r e s  demonstrate that

the board had never c a r r i e d  out i t s  continuing

c o n s t i t u t i o n a l  duty t o  desegregate  the Columbus

schoo ls  in two and a h a l f  decades.  583 F.2d at
800.

Dayton.

The panel  in the Dayton case (Judges P h i l l i p s ,  
Peck and L i v e l y )  reached a s im i la r  c o n c lu s io n :

A l th o u gh  we b e l i e v e  t h i s  f i n d i n g  t o  
have been i m p l i c i t  in the prev ious  d e c i s i o n s  
o f  t h i s  c o u r t ,  we now e x p r e s s l y  h o l d  t h a t  
at  the t ime o f  Brown I , d e f e n d a n t s  were 
i n t e n t i o n a l l y  o p e r a t i n g  a d u a l  sy s te m  in 
v i o l a t i o n  of  the Equal P r o t e c t i o n  Clause o f  
the  f o u r t e e n t h  amendment. Our h o l d i n g  i s  
b a s e d  upon s u b s t a n t i a l  e v i d e n c e ,  much o f  
which  i s  u n d i s p u t e d .  The f i n d i n g  o f  the  
d i s t r i c t  c o u r t  to  the c o n t r a r y  [ f o o t n o t e  
omitted]  i s  c l e a r l y  erroneous,  Rule 52, Fed. 
R. Civ.  P . ,  and i s  based upon both a f a i l u r e  
to  a t t r i b u t e  the proper l e g a l  s i g n i f i c a n c e  to 
the ev idence  o f  p r e -Brown I v i o l a t i o n s  and 
upon v a r i o u s  e r r o r s  o f  law .  583 F .2 d  at  
247.

3/  In 1954-55, systemwide enrol lment was 55,354 
p u p i l s ,  i n c l u d i n g  3 2 , 6 4 2  e l e m e n t a r y  s t u d e n t s ,  
12,647 ju n i o r  high students and 8,348 high sch oo l  
student s .



11

The D i s t r i c t  Judge acknowledged in t e n t i o n a l  

s e g r e g a t io n  e x i s t e d  p r i o r  t o  Brown, but dismissed 

the case and granted no r e l i e f  on the ground that 

" [ a ] c t s  o f  i n t e n t io n a l  seg reg at ion  which ended in  

excess  o f  twenty years ago are not c o n s t i t u t i o n a l  

v i o l a t i o n s  in  the  a b s e n c e  o f  a showing  o f  an 

incremental  s e g r e g a t iv e  e f f e c t  t h e r e o f . "  Pet. 
f o r  C e r t i o r a r i ,  No. 7 6 - 6 2 7 ,  p .  188a.  In r e ­
v e rs in g  th is  c o n c lu s io n  the Sixth C i r c u i t  noted 

t h a t  t h e  Dayton  Board had an o v e r t  p o l i c y  o f  

f a c u l t y  se g r e g a t io n  which forbade black  teachers

3/  C o n t 'd .

PI .  L. Ex. 61 at p. 28 .  B lack  e n r o l l m e n t  was 
a p p r o x i m a t e l y  15 p e r c e n t  in  t h i s  p e r i o d .  429 
F.Supp. at 268; 583 F .2d at 799. The approximate 
number o f  b lack  students was 8,303 pupil s  system- 
wide, 4 ,896 elementary pupils  and 1,897 ju n io r  
high.

The 1 954 -55  e n r o l l m e n t  at  b l a c k  Champion 
ju n i o r  high was 739, and the enrol lment at black  
B e a t t y  Park (which  r e p l a c e d  the  Mount Vernon 
s c h o o l ) ,  Fe l ton ,  G a r f i e ld  and Pi lgr im elementary 
schoo ls  was 2,384 .  PI.  L. Ex. 61 at pp. 22-24.

Thus,  4 8 . 7  p e r c e n t  o f  b l a c k  e l e m e n t a r y  
students (2 ,384  o f  4 ,896 )  in  the Columbus schoo l  
system attended the four black s c h o o l s ,  and 39.0 
p e r c e n t  (739  o f  1 , 8 9 7 )  o f  b l a c k  j u n i o r  h igh 
students attended Champion. O vera l l ,  46 .0  percent 
o f  b l a c k  e l e m e n t a r y  and j u n i o r  h igh  s t u d e n t s  
(3 ,123 o f  6 ,793 )  attended the f i v e  s c h o o l s ,  and 
37.6 percent o f  black  pupil s  systemwide (3 ,123  o f  
8 ,303 )  attended the f ive  s c h o o l s .



12

from teaching  white or  mixed classrooms u n t i l  at 

l e a s t  1951-52 and e f f e c t i v e l y  continued the p o l i c y  

th rou gh  the 1970 -71  s c h o o l  y e a r .  583 F .2 d  at 

247-248. The co u r t  found the f a c u l t y  se g r e g a t io n  

p o l i c y  " i n e x t r i c a b l y  t i e d  to  r a c i a l l y  motivated 

student assignment p r a c t i c e s . "  I b i d . For example, 

by s t a f f i n g  s c h o o l s  such as Dunbar High w i t h  

a l l - b l a c k  f a c u l t i e s  who were fo rb idden  to  teach 

w h i t e  p u p i l s  the  board  e s t a b l i s h e d  a c i t y w i d e  

a l l - b l a c k  h ig h  s c h o o l  wh ich  o p e r a t e d  s o  much 
apart from Dayton 's  white  system that i t s  a t h l e t i c  

teams were fo rb idden  to compete with other  Dayton 
s c h o o l s .  This t o t a l  separat ion  was e x a c t ly  in  the 

c l a s s i c  pa t tern  o f  dual systems in  the Deep South. 
To be sure,  some b lack  pu p i l s  were permitted to  

a t t e n d  o t h e r  Dayton h igh  s c h o o l s  w h ich  were 
predominantly white ,  but they were segregate d  and 

d isc r im in ate d  against  wi th in  schoo ls  by p r a c t i c e s  

such as " separate  f a c i l i t i e s ,  in c lu d in g  separate 

swimming poo ls  and l o cker  room f a c i l i t i e s  

maintained at Roosevel t  [ s c h o o l ]  f o r  b lack  and 

w h i t e  s t u d e n t s "  u n t i l  abou t  1950 ( 583  F .2 d  at  

251) ,  the t o t a l  e x c lu s i o n  o f  b lack  c h i ld r e n  from 

the swimming pool  at S t e e l e  High School  (A. 423-



13

424) and the se g r e g a t io n  o f  black  c h i ld r e n  in the 

back rows o f  c l a s s e s  they did  attend with whites .  

(A. 9 0 ) .  The Court  o f  A p p e a l s  n o t e d  th at  the

" c h o i c e "  o f  a t te nd ing  Dunbar was fo r  many b lacks  

"merely a l e s s  d r a s t i c  a l t e r n a t i v e  than attending 

o th er  s ch o o ls  which p r a c t i c e d  i n t r a - s c h o o l  segre ­
g a t i o n  and d i s c r i m i n a t i o n . "  583 F .2d at 250.

The Court  o f  A p p e a l s  d e s c r i b e d  com parab le  

manipulations which c rea ted  a l l - b l a c k  elementary 

s c h o o l s ,  and concluded that  "a t  the time o f  Brown 

JL> approximately 54.3 percent o f  the black  pupils  

in the Dayton schoo l  system were assigned to  four 
s ch o o ls  that  had a l l  black f a c u l t i e s  and student

4/b o d i e s . " -  583 F.2d at 251. The Court o f  Appeals 
sa id  that " G a r f i e l d ,  W i l lard ,  Wogamon and Dunbar 

s ch o o ls  were d e l i b e r a t e l y  segregated  or r a c i a l l y  
imbalanced due t o  the a c t i o n s  o f  defendants"  (583 

F.2d at 251) ,  that  th is  d i s c r im in a t io n  was not 

" c o n f i n e d  in one d i s t i n c t  area"  (583 F.2d at 252) ,

4 /  The Court o f  Appeals found that beginning in 
1912, the Dayton schoo l  board continuous ly  main­
tained  f i r s t  a l l - b l a c k  c l a s s e s  and then a l l - b l a c k  
sch o o ls  on the West Side o f  Dayton through the use 
o f  " s u b t e r f u g e [ s ] to  segregate  c h i l d r e n , "  (Clemons 
v. Board o f  Education o f  H i l l s b o r o ,  Ohio, 228 F.2d 
853, 856 ( 6th Cir .  1956))  such as student t ran s fe r  
p o l i c i e s ,  assignment o f  f a c u l t y  and s t a f f  on a 
r a c i a l l y  i d e n t i f i a b l e  b a s is ,  and the use o f  dual 
over lapping  attendance zones.  583 F.2d at 249-  
251.



14 -

but rather  that the " s e g r e g a t iv e  p r a c t i c e s  at the 

time o f  Brown I i n f e c t e d  the e n t i r e  Dayton p u b l i c  

s ch o o l  system" ( I b i d . ) by working to  "maintain 
o th er  schoo ls  in the d i s t r i c t  as predominantly 

w h i t e . "  ( I b i d . ) The Court found that  the d i s t r i c t  

not only f a i l e d  to  adopt an e f f e c t i v e  desegrega­

t i o n  program a f t e r  Brown, but that  i t s  a c t ions  
" a c t u a l l y  have exacerbated the r a c i a l  separat ion  

e x i s t i n g  at the time o f  Brown I . "  (583 F.2d at 

253) .

Columbus and Dayton

In l i g h t  o f  the  f i n d i n g s  o f  the C ourt  o f  

Appeals that both systems were dual at the time o f  

Brown and that  there was no e f f o r t  to dismantle  

these  dual systems, the co n c lu s io n s  o f  c o n s t i t u ­
t i o n a l  v i o l a t i o n  are f i rmly  based on Keyes. In 

K e y e s , a f t e r  f i r s t  n o t i n g  t h a t  s e g r e g a t i o n  in  
Denver had not been s t a t u t o r y ,  the C o u rt ' s  op in ion  

s ta ted  that  " n e v e r t h e le s s ,  where p l a i n t i f f s  prove 

that  the schoo l  a u t h o r i t i e s  have c a r r i e d  out a 
s y s t e m a t i c  program o f  s e g r e g a t i o n  a f f e c t i n g  a 
s u b s t a n t i a l  p o r t i o n  o f  th e  s t u d e n t s ,  s c h o o l s ,  

teachers and f a c i l i t i e s  wi th in  the s ch o o l  system, 
i t  i s  only common sense to conc lude that  there 

e x i s t s  a pre d ica te  f o r  a f in d in g  o f  the e x is t e n c e  
o f  a dual schoo l  sy stem."  413 U.S. at 201. The 

Keyes o p i n i o n  h e l d  t h a t  in the  a b s e n c e  o f  a

showing  t h a t  r a c i a l l y  i n s p i r e d  s c h o o l  board



15 -

a c t i o n s  were l im i te d  t o  "s ep ara te ,  i d e n t i f i a b l e  

and unre la ted  u n i t s , "  then " p r o o f  o f  state - imposed  
s e g r e g a t i o n  i n  a s u b s t a n t i a l  p o r t i o n  o f  the 
d i s t r i c t  w i l l  s u f f i c e  to support a f in d in g  by the 

t r i a l  c o u r t  o f  the e x i s t e n c e  o f  a dual system."  
There is no p l a u s i b l e  c la im in  e i t h e r  Dayton or 

Columbus t h a t  t h e  p r e - 1 9 5 4  d i s c r i m i n a t i o n  was 

l im i te d  t o  " se p ara te ,  i d e n t i f i a b l e  and unrelated 

u n i t s . "  Rather,  the Court o f  Appeals proper ly  
found that such d i s c r i m i n a t i o n  was s u f f i c i e n t l y  

i n t e g r a l  and s y s t e m a t i c  t o  r e n d e r  them dual  
r a c i a l  systems. And as the Court sa id  in Keyes, 

"where that f in d in g  i s  made, as in cases invo lv in g  
s t a t u t o ry  dual  systems, the school  a u t h o r i t i e s  

have an a f f i r m a t iv e  duty ' t o  e f f e c t u a t e  a t r a n s i ­
t i o n  t o  a r a c i a l l y  n o n d i s c r i m i n a t o r y  s c h o o l  

sys tem . '  Brown I I ,  supra at 301. "  413 U.S. at 

203.

The main s i g n i f i c a n c e  o f  1954 i s  th at  the 

b o a r d ' s  c o n s t i t u t i o n a l  duty to  desegregate stems 
from t h a t  t im e .  The f i n d i n g  th a t  the s e g r e ­
gated s i t u a t i o n  which e x is t e d  in 1954 s t i l l  e x i s t s  

in  the 1 9 7 0 ' s  d e m o n s t r a t e s  t h a t  no e f f e c t i v e  

d e s e g r e g a t i o n  p l a n ,  ( Green v .  County S c h o o l  

B o a r d , s u p r a , 391 U .S .  at 4 3 9 - 4 4 0 )  had been 

implemented in Dayton or  Columbus. Of course i f  
e i t h e r  system had become in tegrated  in  the years 

s in ce  1954, then an inquiry  about new c o n s t i t u ­
t i o n a l  v i o l a t i o n s  would  be r e q u i r e d . But the



16

segregated  sch o o ls  o f  the 1970 's t r a c e  d i r e c t l y  

t o  the pre-1954 se g r e g a t io n  without any in t e r v e n ­
ing era o f  desegregat ion .  Indeed,  there is no 

c la im in e i t h e r  case that an e f f e c t i v e  desegrega­

t i o n  p l a n  has been im plem ented .  Both b o a r d s  

defended on the ground that  they were not o p e r a t ­

ing dual systems in 1954. Having l o s t  on t h i s  

d e f e n s e ,  and h a v in g  f a i l e d  t o  show t h a t  the  

systems were ever subsequently desegregate d ,  Green 

and Swann requ ire  a judgement against  the de fe n ­

dants.
As we s h a l l  d i s c u s s  b e l o w ,  the p o s t - 1 9 5 4  

ac t ion s  o f  the sch oo l  a u t h o r i t i e s  were not r a c i a l ­

ly  n e u t r a l .  But even  i f  d e f e n d a n t s  arguments 

o f  n e u t r a l i t y  were v a l i d ,  Swann teaches that "an 
assignment plan i s  not acce p tab le  simply because 

i t  app ears  t o  be n e u t r a l . "  402 U.S .  a t  28.  

Even i f  the  Dayton and Columbus a u t h o r i t i e s '  
a c t io n s  s ince  Brown are assumed arguendo t o  have 

be e n  n e u t r a l ,  the  r e s u l t s  o b t a i n e d  from t h e i r  

p o l i c i e s  which concededly eschewed any a f f i r m a t iv e  
d e s e g r a t i v e  a c t i o n  f a i l e d  t o  " c o u n t e r a c t  the 

continuing  e f f e c t s  o f  past  schoo l  s e g r e g a t i o n . "  
Swann, supra , 402 U.S. at 28. A c co rd in g ly ,  the 

Sixth C i r c u i t  was c o r r e c t  in f in d in g  systemwide 

c o n s t i t u t i o n a l  v i o l a t i o n s ,  and systemwide e f f o r t s



17

to desegregate  the systems are required  by Swann 
and Keyes.

B. In A d d i t i o n  To The F a i l u r e  To Take 
A f f i r m a t i v e  A c t i o n s  To D e s e g r e g a t e  
Dayton and Columbus Fol lowing Brown, 
The School  Boards Maintained R a c ia l l y  
S e g r e g a t e d  Systems By A g g r a v a t i n g  
Discr im inatory  Acts .

Both Sixth C i r c u i t  panels r e j e c t e d  the school  
b o a r d s ' arguments that th e i r  conduct s ince  the 

Brown d e c i s i o n  had be e n  r a c i a l l y  n e u t r a l ,  and 
instead found the e x is t e n c e  o f  i l l i c i t  i n t e n t i o n ­

a l l y  s e g r e g a t o r y  a c t i o n s  and p o l i c i e s ,  w i th  
systemwide impacts.

Columbus.
In the Columbus case the Sixth C i r c u i t  panel 

endorsed the t r i a l  ju d g e ' s  ex ten s ive  f ind ings  that 

the s c h o o l  a u t h o r i t i e s  used t h e i r  s i t e  s e l e c t i o n  
and new sch oo l  c o n s t r u c t i o n  p o l i c i e s  i n t e n t i o n a l l y  
to  segregate black  c h i ld r e n  in the many schools  

constructed  between 1950 and 1975. The panel  he ld  
that "the D i s t r i c t  Judge was j u s t i f i e d  in r e ly in g  

in part  on the h i s t o r y  o f  the Columbus Board's  

s i t e  ch o i ce s  and c o n s t r u c t i o n  program in f in d in g

d e l i b e r a t e  and u n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l  systemwide se g r e g -
5 /a t i o n . " 583 F .2d  8 0 4 . — The s e g r e g a t i o n  o f

5/  The d i s t r i c t  court  descr ibed  in d e t a i l  the 
s i t e  l o c a t i o n  and e s t a b l i s h m e n t  o f  a t t e n d a n c e  
boundaries f o r  Gladstone (1965)  and Sixth Avenue 
(1961)  elementary schoo ls  in the area southwest



18

f a c u l t y  members in r a c i a l l y  i d e n t i f i a b l e  b lack  and 

white s c h o o l s  was a l s o  maintained i n t o  the 1970 s. 

583 F .2d 8 0 4 - 8 0 5 A s e r i e s  o f  s p e c i f i c  i n ­

stances  o f  gerrymandering, pup i l  attendance op­
t i o n s ,  and d iscon t igu ou s  pupil  assignment areas 
which operated to  segregate  b lack  students were 

a l s o  set  fo r th  in both op in ions below (583 F.2d

5/  contd .
o f  t h e  e a s t - c e n t r a l  b l a c k  community,  and f o r  
Cassady  and Innes  Road e l e m e n t a r y  s c h o o l s  in  
1975 in the north M i f f l i n  annexation area.  429 F. 
Supp. at 248-251. Other se g r e g a t iv e  c o n s t r u c t i o n  
occurred  at a l l  l e v e l s  in  and around the expanding 
b lack  community between 1950 and 1975, v i z . ,  the 
A r l in g to n  Park area to the nor th east ,  the mixed 
c e n t r a l  c i t y  area,  the Marion-Franklin Township 
area, another annexed area east  o f  Marion-Franklin  
T ow n sh ip ,  the  a r e a  n o r t h  o f  the c e n t r a l  b l a c k  
community and in the e a s t - c e n t r a l  area i t s e l f .  
See, Respondents'  B r i e f ,  No. 68-610, pp. 50-76.

6/  The teacher assignment p o l i c y  ended in  1974 
only a f t e r  independent adm in is tra t ive  proceedings 
b e f o r e  the Ohio C i v i l  Rights Commission resu l ted  
in r e a s s ig n m e n t  o f  f a c u l t y  t o  a p p r o x i m a t e  the 
systemwide r a c i a l  com pos it ion .  429 F.Supp. 238, 
259-260. The adm in is tra t ive  proceed in gs ,  however,  
d i d  n o t  c o n c e r n  d i s c r i m i n a t o r y  a d m i n i s t r a t i v e  
s t a f f  a s s ig n m e n t ,  which  c o n t i n u e d  u n abate d .  
Thus, in 1975-76, 73.3 percent o f  b lack  adminis­
t r a t o r s  were  a s s i g n e d  t o  s c h o o l s  w ith  7 0 -100  
p e r c e n t  b l a c k  s t u d e n t  b o d i e s .  429 F. Supp. at  
240.



19

at 8 05 -813 ) .—̂  The Court o f  Appeals found these 
a c t ion s  are " s i g n i f i c a n t  . . .  in  in d i c a t in g  that 

the Columbus Board 's  'neighborhood school  co n ce pt '  

was not app l ied  when a p p l i c a t i o n  o f  the neighbor ­

hood concept  would tend to  promote in t e g r a t i o n  
rather  than s e g r e g a t i o n . "  583 F.2d at 805. The 

f i n d i n g s  o f  m a n i p u l a t i o n  o f  t h e  n e i g h b o r h o o d  

sch o o l  concept  f o r  s egregat ive  purposes e f f e c ­
t i v e l y  des troys  the bo a r d ' s  c la im t o  n e u t r a l i t y  in 

i t s  conduct  s in c e  Brown.

7/  The c o u r t  b e l o w  d e s c r i b e d  in  d e t a i l  the 
se gregatory  use o f  gerrymandering and o p t io n a l  
attendance zones in vo lv in g  the Near-Bexley Option 
in  a sm a l l  w h i t e  e n c l a v e  e a s t  o f  Columbus'  
b lack  e a s t - c e n t r a l  core  area, and the Highland, 
West Mount and West Board Elementary Options. 429 
F. Supp. at 243-247, 271-274. Other such opt ions 
invo lved  the Downtown area,  Pi lgr im elementary, 
Frank lin -R ooseve l t  ju n i o r  h ighs ,  Central-North 
h igh  s c h o o l s  and E a s t - L i n d e n - M c K i n le y  h igh  
s c h o o l s .  See, Respondents'  B r i e f ,  No. 78-610,  pp. 
45-58 .

The cou r ts  below a l s o  d e t a i l e d  the segregatory  
use  o f  d i s c o n t i g u o u s  p u p i l  a ss ig n m e n t  zones 
in v o lv in g  Moler-Alum Crest elementary s c h o o l s ,  and 
H e i m a n d a l e - F o r n o f  e l e m e n t a r y  s c h o o l s .  429 F. 
Supp. at 247-248, 275. Other d iscont iguous  zoning 
i n v o l v e d  the  N e a r - B e x l e y  o p t i o n s ,  A r l i n g t o n  
Park-Eleventh Avenue-Leonard elementary s ch oo ls ,  
A r l in g to n  Park-Linmoor ju n io r  h ighs ,  Ar l in gton  
Park-M edina  j u n i o r  h i g h s  and, P i n e c r e s t - J o n e s  
Road-Barnett elementary s c h o o l s .  See, Respondents'  
B r i e f ,  No. 78-610,  pp. 50-68.



20

Judge Edwards' o p in ion  d u t i f u l l y  analyzed the 
f in d in g  o f  v i o l a t i o n  in Columbus in accordance 

w i th  the  Dayton I r e q u i r e m e n t  t h a t  the  i n c r e ­

mental s e g r e g a t iv e  e f f e c t  o f  such v i o l a t i o n s  be 

c o n s i d e r e d .  583 F .2d  at  814.  Judge Edwards 
d e s cr ibe d  f i v e  aspects  o f  the v i o l a t i o n  ( i n c l u d ­

in g  t h e  p r e - 1 9 5 4  c o n d u c t  d i s c u s s e d  a b o v e )  as 

n e c e s s a r i l y  systemwide in  t h e i r  impact:
( 1 )  The p r e - 1 9 5 4  e s t a b l i s h m e n t  o f  " f i v e  

sch oo ls  i n t e n t i o n a l l y  designed f o r  b lack  students 
and known as ' b l a c k '  s c h o o l s "  had a s y s t e m -  

wide e f f e c t ;
(2)  The pos t-1954  f a i l u r e  to desegregate  the 

system had systemwide impact;
( 3 )  The s c h o o l  c o n s t r u c t i o n  and s i t i n g  

p o l i c y  was systemwide in i t s  impact;
( 4 )  The s t u d e n t  ass ig n m en t  p o l i c y  which  

produced the large  m ajor i ty  o f  o n e - race  sch oo ls  

was he ld  to  be systemwide;
(5)  The segregated f a c u l t y  assignment p o l i c y  

a f f e c t e d  both b lack  and white  students systemwide 

and r a c i a l l y  i d e n t i f i e d  the s c h o o l s .
The panel  concluded with i t s  own ho ld ing  that 

6 , 6 0 0  pages  o f  the r e c o r d  s u p p o r t e d  a f i n d i n g  

t r a c k i n g  the  language  o f  Dayton I t h a t  the 
p o l i c i e s  and p r a c t i c e s  o f  seg reg at ion  had system 
wide a p p l i c a t i o n  and im p a c t .  583 F .2 d  at  814.



21

The d i s t r i c t  c o u r t  e x p r e s s l y  h e l d  t h a t  " [ t ] h e  

ev idence  in t h i s  case and the fa c t u a l  determina­
t i o n s  made e a r l i e r  in th is  op in ion  support the 

f in d in g  that  those elementary,  j u n i o r ,  and sen ior  
h i g h  s c h o o l s  in the  Columbus s c h o o l  d i s t r i c t  

which pre s e n t ly  have a predominantly b lack  student 

enrol lment have been s u b s t a n t i a l l y  and d i r e c t l y  
a f f e c t e d  by the i n t e n t i o n a l  a c t s  and omissions o f  

the  d e f e n d a n t  l o c a l  and s t a t e  b o a r d s . "  429 F. 

Supp. at 266. This f in d in g  applied to  1975-76 

s t a t i s t i c s ,  means that  65.5 percent o f  the black 

pu p i l s  in the Columbus p u b l i c  s ch o o l  d i s t r i c t  were
" s u b s t a n t i a l l y  and d i r e c t l y  a f f e c t e d "  by de jure

8/s e g r e g a t i o n . —

Dayton.
S i m i la r l y ,  Judge P h i l l i p s ,  w r i t in g  f o r  the 

panel  in the Dayton case s ,  thoroughly reviewed the 

record  o f  s ch o o l  a u t h o r i t i e s '  conduct s in ce  Brown 

and concluded that  there were su bs tan t ia l  p o s t -  

Brown v i o l a t i o n s .  583 F.2d at 253-257. The court  

found d i s c r i m i n a t i o n  in  f a c u l t y  a s s ig n m e n t s .  

Pre-Brown r a c i a l  f a c u l t y  assignment p o l i c i e s  were

8 /  6 5 . 6  p e r c e n t  o f  b l a c k  s t u d e n t s  a t t e n d e d  
sch oo ls  with 50 percent or  g reater  pup i l  e n r o l l ­
ment. See PI. Ex. 392. At the elementary l e v e l  
7 4 . 5  p e r c e n t  o f  b l a c k  s t u d e n t s  were a t t e n d i n g  
predominantly b la ck  s c h o o l s ,  56.8 percent at the 
ju n io r  high l e v e l  and 53.6 percent  at the high 
sch oo l  l e v e l .



22

maintained through 1969 and e f f e c t i v e l y  continued 

in p r a c t i c e  through 1970-1971. 583 F.2d at 253,

503 F .2d at 697-700. The board was s t i l l  opening 

new a l l - b l a c k  sch oo ls  with a l l - b l a c k  f a c u l t i e s  in 

the 1960 's ,  e . g . , McFarlane and the new Dunbar. 

583 F .2d at  2 5 3 - 2 5 4 .  The c o u r t  r e j e c t e d  the  

co n te n t io n  that the r a c i a l  imbalance was adven­

t i t i o u s ,  po in t in g  out that o p t i o n a l  attendance

zones were used in  the 1970 's f o r  r a c i a l l y  s e g r e -
9/

g a t i v e  p u r p o s e s .  583 F .2 d  at  255 .  The c o u r t  
a l s o  made f in d in gs  that schoo l  c o n s t r u c t i o n  and 

s i t e  s e l e c t i o n  d e c i s i o n s  as w e l l  as grade s t r u c ­
ture  and re o r g a n iz a t i o n  d e c i s i o n s  had c o n t r ib u t e d  

a f f i r m a t i v e l y  t o  the co n t in u a t io n  o f  the se g r e g a t ­

ed sys tem  s e t  up p r i o r  t o  1954.  583 F .2 d  at
2 5 6 - 2 5 7 .  The p o l i c y  o f  r e p l a c i n g  i n n e r  c i t y  

schoo ls  with sometimes i r r e g u l a r l y  s i z e d  sch o o ls  

in  the  same a t t e n d a n c e  zones  and b u i l d i n g  new 

sch oo ls  at the p e r ip h e r i e s  o f  the expanding Dayton 

community fa r  from inner c i t y  areas r e su l t e d  in 22

9/ See, e . g . , o p t i o n a l  attendance zones i n v o l v ­
ing Dunbar, Pat terson  Coop, Colone l  White-Riser ,  
R ooseve l t -Fa irv iew  and White, Residence Park-Adams, 
W e s t w o o d -G a r d e n d a le ,  J e f f e r s o n - B r o w n  and J e f -  
f e r s o n - C o r n e l 1 H e i g h t s .  503 F .2d  at 6 9 5 - 6 9 6 ,  
Respondents'  B r i e f  No. 78-627,  pp. 44-51 .



-  23

o f  24 new s c h o o l s  and 78 o f  86 a dd i t io n s  that were 

90 percent o r  more black or  whi te .  583 F.2d at 

255.  The s c h o o l  b o a r d ' s  r e o r g a n i z a t i o n  o f  20 
elementary sch oo ls  in t o  a middle sch oo l  system in 

1971-72, as the Ohio State Department o f  Education 

put i t ,  added "one more a c t i o n  to a long  l i s t  o f  

s t a t e  imposed a c t i v i t i e s  which are o f f e n s i v e  to  

the C o n s t i t u t i o n  and which are degrading to  school  

c h i l d r e n . "  583 F.2d at 256, 503 F.2d at 702 . — ''  

F i n a l l y ,  the panel  cons idered  the incremental  

se g r e g a t iv e  e f f e c t  o f  what i t  c a l l e d  the "d e fe n ­
d a n t s 1 most e g r e g i o u s  p r a c t i c e s . "  583 F .2d 

at 258. Like the panel in the Columbus case ,  i t  
found that  pre -Brown segregat ion  M,a f f e c t [ e d ]  a 

su b s t a n t ia l  p o r t i o n  o f  the s c h o o l s ,  teachers and 

f a c i l i t i e s '  o f  the  Dayton s c h o o l s  and,  thus 

c l e a r l y  had systemwide im pact . "  583 F.2d at 258. 
The court  a l s o  said that  p o s t -Brown acts  " p e r p e t ­
uated and increased  p u b l i c  sch oo l  se g re g at io n  in

10/  Although the Court o f  Appeals did  not f in d  i t  
n e c e s s a r y  to  r e l y  on such p r o o f  in  i t s  l a s t  
o p i n i o n ,  the  Dayton s c h o o l  bo a r d  a l s o  pursued  
se g r e g a t iv e  t r a n s f e r  and t ra n sp o r t a t io n  p o l i c i e s .  
503 F.2d at 703; Respondents'  B r i e f ,  No. 78-627, 
pp. 53-59.



-  24

Dayton."  583 F.2d at 258.
These s o l i d  f ind ings  o f  p o s t -Brown d i s c r i m i ­

nat ion  r e i n f o r c e  the c o n c lu s io n  that the Dayton 

and Columbus b o a r d s  have  not  o n l y  f a i l e d  t o  

f u l f i l l  th e i r  o b l i g a t i o n s  to  dismantle the dual 

systems they create d  p r i o r  to  Brown, but a f f i r m a ­

t i v e l y  c o n t r i b u t e d  t o  the s e g r e g a t i o n  e x t a n t  

today.  The depth and d e t a i l  o f  the f in d in gs  is 

impress ive .  The co n c lu s io n s  o f  se g r e g a t iv e  in tent  

are based upon o b j e c t i v e  f a c t s  in the records  and 

should be a f f i rm ed.

I I .  The Sixth C i r c u i t  Has Properly Applied the
E q u i t a b l e  P r i n c i p l e  That A Remedy Must Be 
Reasonably Related To The V i o l a t i o n

A. The Dayton I Requirement Of Findings Of 
Incremental  Segregat ive E f f e c t  Should 
E i t h e r  Be I n t e r p r e t e d  In  Harmony 
With Keyes, As The Sixth C i r c u i t  Read 
I t ,  Or I t  Should Be Overruled.

11/ In 1971-72, the year the a c t i o n  was f i l e d ,  
the Dayton schoo l  d i s t r i c t  had 54,000 students ,  
42.7 percent o f  whom were b lack .  There were 69 
s c h o o l s ;  49 had student enrol lments 90 percent or 
more o f  one r a c e  (21 b l a c k ,  28 w h i t e ) ,  7 5 .9  
p e r c e n t  o f  b l a c k  s t u d e n t s  b e i n g  a s s i g n e d  t o  
the 21 black  sc h o o l s .  503 F.2d at 694-695, 583 
F . 2d at 254.



25

Both panels o f  the Sixth C i r c u i t  read t h i s  

C o u r t ' s  Dayton I o p in ion  as re a f f i rm in g  the Keyes 

h o l d i n g  t h a t  where s e g r e g a t i o n  p o l i c i e s  had a 
systemwide impact systemwide r e l i e f  i s  required .  

Both co u r ts  deemed that i t  was compliance with 

Dayton I to  determine that the i d e n t i f i e d  segrega­

t i v e  p o l i c i e s  o f  the two sc h o o l  board were not 
i s o l a t e d  or  l im i ted  to  i n s u b s t a n t ia l  fragments o f  

the systems, but were inste ad  systemwide in  t h e i r  

a p p l i c a t i o n .  Both panels acknowledge the Dayton I 

lan gu ag e  which  c a l l e d  f o r  f i n d i n g s  abou t the  
" increm ental  s e g r e g a t iv e  e f f e c t "  o f  the v i o l a t i o n s  
and a comparison o f  the present r a c i a l  d i s t r i b u ­

t i o n  o f  the pu p i l s  with "what i t  would have been 

in the absence o f  such c o n s t i t u t i o n a l  v i o l a t i o n s . "  
(583  F .2d  at  2 5 7 ;  583 F .2 d  at  8 1 3 ) .  However,  
n e i th e r  o p in ion  deemed i t  necessary t o  embark on a 

h igh ly  s u p p o s i t i t i o u s  and h y p o t h e t i c a l  r e c o n s t r u c ­

t i o n  o f  where the pup il s  might be i f  the pervas ive  
se g re g at io n  p o l i c i e s  had never been implemented. 
Where se g r e g a t io n  i s  i s o l a t e d ,  as f o r  example by a 

recent  gerrymander that  a f f e c t s  a few s c h o o l s  and 

p u p i l s ,  one might r e a s o n a b l y  a t tem p t  such a 

r e c o n s t r u c t i o n ,  and reach a c o n c lu s io n  to l im i t  

the remedy to  a few s c h o o l s .  But where, as in 
these cases ,  so many asp ects  o f  the segregat ion



26

p o l i c y  were o f  long standing and were systemwide 

in  t h e i r  e f f e c t s  t h e r e  can  be no m e a n i n g f u l  

r e c o n s t r u c t i o n  o f  what m ight h a v e  o c c u r r e d .  

This Court cou ld  not have intended to  so burden 
the process  o f  desegregat ion .

Dunbar High School  in Dayton i l l u s t r a t e s  the 
d i f f i c u l t y  with such a reading o f  Dayton I . As we 

have d e s cr ibe d  above, Dunbar was e s t a b l i s h e d  as a 

c i tyw ide  high schoo l  f o r  b la cks ,  with an a l l - b l a c k  

f a c u l t y ,  and a p o l i c y  f o r b i d i n g  b lacks  to  teach 

whites .  I t  was named f o r  a well-known black  poet .  

B la c k s  were e i t h e r  a u t o m a t i c a l l y  a s s i g n e d  t o  

Dunbar or  induced to  attend by o ther  means i n c lu d ­

ing the d iscourag ing  e f f e c t s  o f  se g r e g a t iv e  and 
d is c r im in a to r y  treatment in the white  s c h o o l s .  
W hites  were e x c l u d e d  from Dunbar by the  o v e r t  

f a c u l t y  p o l i c y .  It  is  d i f f i c u l t  to  imagine how 
the attendance pat tern  o f  a l l  o f  Dayton's  high 

schoo ls  might have deve loped  i f  Dunbar had never 

been e s t a b l i sh e d  and maintained as the c i tywide  

sch oo l  f o r  b lacks  o n ly ,  or  i f  i t  had ever been 
desegregated a f t e r  be ing  e s t a b l i s h e d  as a one -race  

s c h o o l .  No witness cou ld  t e s t i f y  with any c e r ­

t a in t y  whether black  c i t i z e n s  would have l o c a t e d  
t h e i r  homes near  o t h e r  h igh  s c h o o l s  i f  t h e i r



-  27

c h i ld r e n  had been welcomed there or  that whites  

would have l i v e d  near Dunbar i f  i t  had been an 

i n te g r a te d  school  from the beginning .  Segregated 

sch o o ls  were an i n t e g r a l  part o f  the g h e t t o i z a t i o n  

o f  b l a c k s .  Who can know t o  what e x t e n t  the 
ghet tos  o f  Dayton and Columbus would be d i f f e r e n t ,  

i f  the schoo ls  had been operated on a n o n - d i s -  

c r i m i n a t o r y  b a s i s ,  and had tau g h t  a l e s s o n  o f  

n o n - d i s c r i m i n a t i o n  and e q u a l i t y  i n s t e a d  o f  a 

l e sson  o f  white  supremacy.

I f  the Dayton I h o ld in g  does l im i t  the r igh t  

to a d e s e g r e g a t e d  e d u c a t i o n  to  s c h o o l s  which 

p l a i n t i f f s  can prove would have been in tegrated  

absent s p e c i f i c  d i s c r im in a t o r y  conduct ,  i t  would 

r e s u r r e c t  the s c h o o l - b y - s c h o o l  f r a c t i o n a t i n g  o f  
these cases which the m a jo r i ty  r e j e c t e d  in Keyes, 

o v e r  d i s s e n t s  by Mr. J u s t i c e  P o w e l l  and Mr. 
J u s t i c e  Rehnquist.  In grant ing  a stay  in  Colum­

bus , Mr. J u s t i c e  Rhenquist in d ica te d  a view that  
the Sixth C i r c u i t  was m is in t e r p r e t in g  the C ourt ' s  

Dayton I mandate. Columbus, Board o f  Education v . 

P e n i c k , 58 L Ed 2d 55 ( J u s t i c e  R e h n q u is t  i n  

chambers) . I f  that view i s  c o r r e c t  (and we urge 
above that  i t  is n o t )  then we b e l i e v e  that the 

Dayton I r e q u i r e m e n t  s h o u l d  be o v e r r u l e d .  I f
p l a i n t i f f s  have the burden o f  prov ing a bas is  f o r



28

desegregat ion  s c h o o l —by—s c h o o l ,  o r  o f  c a l c u l a t i n g  

the p r e c i s e  numbers o f  pu p i l s  a f f e c t e d  by each 

s e g r e g a t i o n i s t  a c t ,  the Dayton I r u le  w i l l  impose 

a p r a c t i c a l  b a r r i e r  t o  any meaningful  r e l i e f  even 

i f  the c a s e  o f  e g r e g i o u s  o v e r t  s e g r e g a t i o n  

such as at Dunbar High.
We ask the  C ourt  t o  ad h e r e  t o  the  e x p r e s s  

h o l d i n g  o f  Keyes t h a t  p l a i n t i f f s  i n  a s c h o o l  

desegregat ion  case should not "bear the burden o f  

proving the elements o f  de_ jure se g re g at io n  as to 
each and every sch oo l  or  each and every student 

with in  the schoo l  system,"  and that a system­

a t i c  program o f  s e g r e g a t io n  a f f e c t i n g  a substan­

t i a l  p o r t i o n  o f  the studen ts ,  s c h o o l s ,  teachers 

and f a c i l i t i e s "  was a proper p r e d ic a t e  f o r  f i n d ­

ing that  a system was a dual system. 413 U.S. at 

2 0 0 - 2 0 1 .  Th is  was the C o u r t ' s  "common s e n s e "  

c o n c l u s i o n  c o n s i d e r i n g  the  r e c i p r o c a l  e f f e c t  

that  a p o l i c y  o f  keeping some sch o o ls  b lack  has in 
keeping o th er  s c h o o l s  white ,  and the e f f e c t  that 

earmarking c e r t a i n  schoo ls  as b la ck  would have on 

the r a c i a l  compos it ion  o f  the neighborhoods in  the 

m etropo l i tan  area.  413 U.S. 202-203. This h o ld in g  

o f  Keyes seemed to  have been c l e a r  at the time to  
the  members o f  the Court  who d i s s e n t e d .  The 
d i s s e n t in g  o p in ion  o f  M r .Justi ce  Powell o b je c t e d  

to a systemwide remedy in  part  because although



-  29

the s ch o o l  board was " l e g a l l y  r e sp o n s ib le  f o r  some 

o f  the se g re g at io n  that e x i s t s , "  he b e l i e v e d  that  
i f  they had proper ly  d ischarged  t h e i r  " c o n s t i ­
t u t i o n a l  du ty  . . .  o v e r  the pas t  d e c a d e s ,  the  

fundamental problem o f  r e s i d e n t i a l  segregat ion  

would  p e r s i s t . "  413 U.S .  at  249 .  Mr. J u s t i c e  

Rehnquist d i s s e n t e d ,  o b j e c t i n g  t o  the a p p l i c a t i o n  

o f  the Green d e c i s i o n ' s  a f f i r m a t iv e  desegregative  

d u t i e s  to  Denver, and r e l i e f  that might requ ire  

t h a t  " p u p i l s  be t r a n s p o r t e d  g r e a t  d i s t a n c e s  
throughout the d i s t r i c t  to and from sch oo ls  whose 

attendance zones have not been gerrymandered." 423 

U.S. at 257. The m a jo r i ty  r e j e c t e d  th is  argument 

with a r e a f f i r m a t io n  o f  Green. Keyes, supra, 413 
U.S. at 200-201, note  11.

I t  i s  t h i s  c e n t r a l  h o l d i n g  o f  Keyes th at  
p e t i t i o n e r s  seek t o  reverse  through t h e i r  reading 

o f  Dayton I . We b e l i e v e ,  however, that  the Keyes 
h o l d i n g  abou t  the i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p  be tw een  

s e g r e g a t i v e  p r a c t i c e s  among s c h o o l s  w i t h i n  a 
system i s  as v a l i d  today as when Keyes was decided 

s i x  years ago. The contrary  ru le  that  p l a i n t i f f s  
in a sch oo l  desegregat ion  case should have the 

burden  o f  s c h o o 1- b y - s c h o o 1 j u s t i f i c a t i o n  o f  a 
d e s e g r e g a t i o n  remedy i s  as i n v a l i d  t o d a y  as 
when r e j e c t e d  in Keyes.



30

Where the sch oo l  d i s t r i c t  has been shown to  

have engaged in a se g r e g a t io n  p o l i c y  which has had 

su bs tan t ia l  impact, the same " [ c ] o n s i d e r a t i o n s  o f  

' f a i r n e s s '  and ' p o l i c y ' "  ( Keyes, supra , 413 U.S. 

at 214) which led to the Keyes h o ld in g  as to  the 

a l l o c a t i o n  o f  the burden o f  p r o o f  s t i l l  apply.  

Nothing has changed s in c e  1973 which r e qu ire s  th is  

Court  t o  adopt new p r o c e d u r e s  and r e m ed ies  

f o r  the d isestab l ishment o f  northern p u b l i c  schoo l  

s e g r e g a t io n .  The l e s s o n  o f  over two decades o f  

s c h o o l  d e s e g e g a t i o n  j u r i s p r u d e n c e  i s  t h a t  the  

substant ive  r i g h t  to  equal  educat ional  opportu nity  

is  governed by the law o f  procedure and remedy. 
We t h e r e f o r e  r e s p e c t f u l l y  submit that these cases 

present the Court with no l e s s  an i ssue  than the 
f u t u r e  o f  s c h o o l  d e s e g r e g a t i o n  in  the N o r t h :  

" [ t ] o  take away a l l  remedy f o r  the enforcement of  

a r i g h t  i s  to  take away the r ig h t  i t s e l f . "  Poindex­

ter  v. Greenhow, 114 U.S. 270, 303.
We urge the Court to  a f f i r m  the ru le  o f  Green 

and Swann t h a t  any s c h o o l  d i s t r i c t  which  has 

v i o l a t e d  the c o n s t i t u t i o n a l  r i g h t s  o f  i t s  black 

s t u d e n t s  must u n d e r t a k e  the  maximum f e a s i b l e  

amount of  desegregat ion .  Their duty i s  to "make 
e v e r y  e f f o r t  to  a c h i e v e  the  g r e a t e s t  p o s s i b l e



31

d e g r e e  o f  a c t u a l  d e s e g r e g a t i o n ,  t a k i n g  i n t o  

account the p r a c t i c a l i t i e s  o f  the s i t u a t i o n "  and 

co n s id e r in g  the use o f  " a l l  a v a i la b l e  techniques 
in c lu d in g  the r e s t r u c t u r in g  o f  attendance zones 
and both contiguous and noncontiguous attendance 

z o n e s . "  Davis v.  School  Commissioners o f  Mobile 
County, 402 U.S. 33, 37; see Swann, supra, 402

U.S .  at  2 2 - 3 1 .  That r u l e  would be e n t i r e l y  
crushed and thwarted in  most o f  the Nation by a 

d o c t r i n e  which co n s id e rs  the process  o f  desegrega­
t i o n  as a necessary e v i l  to be app l ied grudgingly  

and s p a r i n g l y  as i f  w i th  a " m i c r o m e t e r "  —  t o  

r e p e a t  Judge W e i n s t e i n ' s  c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n .

B. These  Cases W i l l  Determine The Fu tu re  Of 
School  Desegregation In The North.

In a February 1979 survey the United States 
Commission on C i v i l  Rights found "that  the a d j u s t ­

ment o f  p a r e n t s  and s t u d e n t s  t o  d e s e g r e g a t i o n  
continues  and the p r e d i c t i o n s  o f  se r ious  r a c i a l

c o n f l i c t  and a d e t e r i o r a t i n g  q u a l i t y  o f  educat ion
12/have proved g r o u n d l e s s . " —  The Commission found 

that  sch oo l  dese gre g at io n "  not only continues to

12/ U. S. Comm, on C i v i l  Rights ,  DESEGREGATION OF 
THE NATION'S PUBLIC SCHOOLS: A STATUS REPORT, i i  
(Feb. 1979).



32

be a c o n s t i t u t i o n a l  r e q u i r e m e n t  but  a v i t a l  

n a t ion a l  goal  that  we b e l i e v e  i s  broad ly  supported 

by the American p e o p l e . "  I d . at i i i .  The Commis­
s ion  found that  i n t e g r a t i o n  was a su ccess  in many 

communities,  in c lu d in g  notab ly  Char lo tte-Mecklen 

burg, North C aro l in a ,  and Denver, Colorado ,  the 

communities invo lved  in  Swann and Keyes. Ld. at 

34-35, 40-41 ,  72. This C o u rt ' s  l ea d e r sh ip  has had 

a sa lu tary  e f f e c t  in many communities.  Without 

such continued le ade rsh ip ,  however, the future 

o f  in t e g r a t i o n  in the North would be bl eak .  The 
Commission a l s o  found that  in some d i s t r i c t s  and 

r e g io n s — notably the Northeast  and North Central  
r e g io n s — se g re g at io n  remains at d i s c o u r a g in g ly  

high l e v e l s .  I d . at i i ,  20.
The s p e c t e r  o f  e n d l e s s  s e g r e g a t i o n  o f  t h e  

races  in  the p u b l i c  schoo ls  o f  the North haunts 
t h e s e  c a s e s .  The a d o p t i o n  o f  p e t i t i o n e r s '  

p o s i t i o n  would remove the l i g h t  o f  hope f o r  an 

in tegra ted  s o c i e t y  at the end o f  the tunnel ,  and 

w i th  i t  the  e s s e n t i a l  t r u s t  and c o n f i d e n c e  
between the races on which our n a t i o n a l  s t a b i l i t y  

and progress depend.
T h is  Court  m ight have c h o s e n  one o r  more 

d i r e c t  r o u t e s  t o  d e s e g r e g a t i o n  o f  the  p u b l i c  

sch oo ls  o f  the North rather  than the l a b y r i n t h i c  

"de ju r e "  in qu iry .  The Court might have found



33 -

s t a t e - i n d u c e d  and supported housing  se g re g at io n
patterns s u f f i c i e n t  ground f o r  i n v a l i d a t i n g  and

13/remedying the concomitant sch oo l  s e g r e g a t i o n . —  Or
the Court might have he ld  that  schoo l  a u t h o r i t i e s

must advance a t ru ly  com pel l ing  i n t e r e s t  be fore

p e r p e t u a t i n g  by s t u d e n t  ass ig n m en t  th e  r a c i a l
14/i s o l a t i o n  o f  our urban r e s i d e n t i a l  p a t t e r n s . —  

F i n a l l y ,  t h i s  Court under the broad p r o t e c t i v e  

p r o v i s i o n s  o f  the  T h i r t e e n t h  and F o u r t e e n t h  
Amendments might have i n v a l id a t e d  and provided 

r e m e d ie s  f o r  d_e f a c t o  s c h o o l  s e g r e g a t i o n . - ^ - ^  
These are routes  which would promise n a t io n ­

wide s ch o o l  desegregat ion  rather than a continuing  
double standard between North and South pred icate d  

on p a s t  de_ j u r e  c o n d u c t .  But t h i s  Court  has 
instead r e l i e d  in Keyes upon the narrower route 

f o r  Northern sch o o l  desegreg at ion  through f ind ings  
o f  schoo l  board d i s c r im in ato ry  inte nt and presump­

ti on s  based thereon.  Now p e t i t i o n e r s  would render

13/ C f . ,  M i l l ik e n  v.  B rad ley , 418 U.S. 717, 755 
(1974)  (Stewart ,  J. c o n c u r r in g ) .

14/ Si lard ,  Toward Nationwide School  Desegrega-  
t i o n :  A "Compell ing State I n t e r e s t "  Test o f  Rac ia l  
Concentrat ion  in  Pu bl ic  Education, 51 N. Car. L. 
Rev. 675 (1973)  (passim).

15/  Wright,  Publ ic  School Desegregation :  Legal 
Remedies f o r  De Facto Segregat ion ,  40 N.Y.U.L. 
Rev. 285 (1965 ) .



34 -

Keyes meaningless and unworkable and thus make 

permanent the  p a t t e r n  o f  s e g r e g a t e d  p u b l i c  

s c h o o l s  i n  the North .  Those  who have  d e v o t e d  

t h e i r  l i v e s  t o  l a bo r in g  in  the vineyards f o r  an 

in tegra ted  s o c i e t y  b e l i e v e  they have earned the 

r i g h t  to  speak p l a i n l y :  I f  th is  Court were to 

accept  p e t i t i o n e r s  1 p o s i t i o n ,  segregated  sch oo ls  

(and as a consequence a more segregated  s o c i e t y )  

w i l l  be the legacy  o f  the Court,  ju s t  as sure ly  as 

a segregated s o c i e t y  was the legacy  o f  the Court 

that dec ided the C i v i l  Rights Cases,  109 U.S. 3

and Plessy  v.  Ferguson, 163 U.S. 537.



35 -

CONCLUSION

I t  i s  r e s p e c t f u l l y  submitted that the judg­

ments o f  the  U nited  S t a t e s  Court  o f  A ppea ls  
f o r  the Sixth C i r c u i t  in these cases should be 

a f  f  i  rme d .

R e s p e c t f u l l y  submitted,

JACK GREENBERG 
JAMES M. NABRIT, I I I  
BILL LANN LEE

Suite  2030
10 Columbus C i r c l e
New York, New York 10019

JOSEPH L. RAUH, JR.
JOHN SILARD
ELLIOT C. LICHTMAN

Rauh, Si lard and Lichtman 
1001 Connect icut  Avenue, N.W. 
8000 East J e f f e r s o n  Avenue 
D e t r o i t ,  Michigan 48214

JOHN FILLION
United Auto Workers
8000 East J e f f e r s o n  Avenue
D e t r o i t ,  Michigan 48214

Attorneys f o r  Amici Curiae



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