Davis v. Mobile County Board of School Commissioners Appendix Volume I

    Qailil T3to. Vot,.rn

255

Stgreo€nt of

Dr. Jaoas lJ. Loeuen

Assocl.lc profcsror of Soclology

lJalverrlry of Vcraont

BurLlntton, Vcrront 0S405

and

Rcrcerch Asloctata
Ccarcr for N.rlonrl pollcy Revtcu

School of hu, Cerho,l [1c Unlvcrrlty of 16211".
thrhlngton, D.C. 2OO6a

Proposed Blll. to Exr.Dd the Vorlng Rlghts AcE

to th.

SubcoaEltlcc on C1v!l ernd Con!tlturional RlShct
coEltt.G bn thc Judlciery
Housc of Raprcscntatlves

ury 19, lg8r

ritJr rqgard to Taliaferro County, the cir.nryour state-ment involve the uie ;I-d-absentee ballots toil;;fif#' "#u f .Hni', Tio,fll " t"lj :[
tic employed equally with black as well qs

f :kffiTl{#i:"fstFHdU,?#.:*

'ffii$iH'l#Blbll]:- 1e-8 1'has made

il ; Hi;;r # 
,ifseHTS' 

t'ti Jtffi

ilid*ffiTf+1i::'*tii'&}:'
t" .tri" 

-a-""iJi *'li' tf, 3"S,t riL,r8olf tLn the effect that no

x,H : jmi *"r*;risxl,.{Frl,t
,'ii:l sfff .fillLxrutiliifr".:, 

"*,Bsage of the act-of 1
of good faith.
.TlI_t_\" hotding o.f the^ district court?r-your characterizati
,9!s1if;;i*sffi "iil#Hr'ffi A?::htrstnct court.

$,l,Yn: x,1',*" ffl|,Bl?:".fl ,,,,1d

represent considerable crossover white
also demonstrates that_had the election/stem, that the candidate *";ld-il;;
:rossover vote is present in those num-

rery much.
Dr.., Ja_rges Loewen, who is a professry, the U_niversity of ve.-o"-i.rrv'er'brp"l' _William 

" Tayloi 
-irom 

Catholicersity' Lar, School, ana- ii"rr""!-t'ifii.

,''fil

:e-nt will be made part of the recontluows:J



l'
'zb6

r i-, -^r',..'^F anc L'ua::fi:1!:ln5'

1 began anal)-:1n8 e!ecti'crrsr us!n8'ihcn-ne! staElstlcal rechnique5

such as overi-PD:-nB Percentages and ecologlcal corrirlatl-cn' HhlIe a

graduate atudenl !n soc''oIo8'y at Harvard UnlrerslE)' fn 195( ' t'Jhen I noveC

back ro ylssisslppl ln 1968, my interests focussed cl:tla-:-b199 r3::l!i

Its exteD!, lts causes' and !ts effects' Silrce then I l"ave anelyzed aDouE

}50d!flerentelecilonsandhavePresentedltrere:u].rsofriroseanalyses

lDBorechanadozencourtcases,nostl}1nvo]\.i'nlthevc.lrlSRlBhlsAct.

especlaily Sec!1on Ilve' Thts constlrures a broader erplrlcaI base ln

thls area ElBn Ghrt of any ocher social sciencisr I've encoulLered' LPPen-

dlx A, E) vlEar llsrs these cases anC also p:esents nv educational back-

ground and ex?erlence more generallv' Race relatloE and pcIltlcaI soclology

are tlro of t!.v fhree subsr3n!lve 3reas of sPe'irLlzaclon ulthln soclology;

boEh bear on this lssue' Let oe add that I uas engagei by lhe Jus:lce

DePartEen! Iasa year !o tach a seven-hour uorkshop go sone of thelr aEEor-

Deya on the use of staEistlcs anC soc!al' sclence ex'Dertlse ln Iltj'garlon'

end I at nov coBPle:lng a book on rhat subjecL' Soclgl Sclence ln the

courtroc:r, for D. c. HesEh' !{y vcrk ln Ehis area earned De the Flrsr AnnEl

Splvack Agard of rhe Aselican Socloiogical AssocLaflcn ani helprd tr€ uix a

Iul,brlghl FeiloushiP Lo Australia ln race rclaElons anri the lav'

1tlt3 sEateEnt flrsr Presenls o1- fincings on the exEen! of ra:ia]

bloc vo:lng in the four staces gttere I have dcne mcsr of nt'resarch:

sou..hcarollna,GeorBla,Alabau,ani){iss!ssirpi'Thenloffercomenss

rstorhedeSreelos.trlchblack'.'o!erscaneffectivelyPartj'clPaEetnthz

poltElcal'Process, Siven the extent of shlre bloc vo:ing rhat ob!a!ns' ani

I
,t

t
:t

!
I

"hI'
:

da

rh

So

an

ct

tt

at

3n

ov

de

Pt

Pc

oc

irh

Cd

EC

on

Pr



56)

ng thcn-neu sfa!tstlcal technlques

coloBlcal corrijLatlon, uhll,€ a

frd Unlversity 1n 1956. !.lhen I novaC

ests focussrd on raclal, bloc vocln3:

Es. Slnce lhen I have anr),yzed abrut

rnted the rc:uLts of Ehose anal.yscs

tly j.nvolvlnq the Vot.lng Rlghrs Acr,

tutes r broader elplr1cal base ln

al scienrisE 1've encou:rcereC. A.ppen-

also prescncs my educational back-

Race relaciong rnC pol1E1cal socl.ology

of speciJllzatlon ult.hln soctology;

that I sas engageC by che Justlce

-hour uorlcshop t'o soae of chelr acror-

lel sclence cxpertlse ln lltlgarloni

t iubjecc, Soclsl Sclence ln che

ln Ehls area carned De Ehe Firsr Annual

81cr1 Assoc.larion anC heJ.peci oe wr, a

racc relations and the lav.

flndlngs on the exEenE of raclal

I have done oosr of ov resear:h:

XlsslssiDpi, Then I offer ccruren!s

B can effectlvely partlclpare ln !he

f uh1!c bloc voring rhaE obr.ains, and

/zs?'

-2-

dcpendlng oD varlous election practlces. Flnalty

thc aocloeconoElc posltions of the black end uhlce

South, dlffe3ences Ehar explaln sone of rhe vorlng

I note dlfferences 1n

corErunltles 1n the

stat ta t ics.

Three staElsr!.ca1 technique6 -_ correLailon, overlarplng percenEages,
and ccoroglcar regresslon -- allou r soclal sclentlst cr 9!aglsrlcran to
ctlcularc racher lccurately (dependlng on hou Eny preclncts or couDrleo
rre !.ovolved) Jr:st hou EeESlr8 of each race voted lD an eLectl.on, eveD

though rhe soclal. scienrj.st sas not 1n 1de the potlbooth ylrh anyone.
Thls atateuent surpr:.sca soEe peopr.e u.ho are r.rrfanlilar r'rth the

rnalyeer; hence l,et ue shou qulckly hos rhe slnplesc of rhe technlques,
overlapplng percenlages aaalysls, ts donc. (The other rechnlques are
&scrlbed ln APPendlx 8.) ov.rrapplng percenrages conslsts of ldenrlf-y1ng
pr.clncEs thar are extreoely hlgh ln the flrsr varlable (: uhlte in rhe
populatlon), assuElng tbar all cross-raclal ballorlng cltat could have
occurred d1d occur, and calculatlng rhe resulting D1nlEL@ percencage of
uhltes uho Eust h.ave voted uhlte for the votes to have come ouf as they dlC.

Tab]e 1 shoua thc popularlon of each precincti by race, for Floyd
County, 6corgla, lncludJ,ng Rome, 1970, supplred ne by the Jusrlce Depart_
Dant 1D 1978. shen I ues preparing to b€ an expert *,ltness 1n Rone. et aI.,
v. U.S. Slnce overl.applng percentages anall,sis 1s epproprlately apptied
only to hcarrlly shlrc or heavlly bltck precincts, only 902 ohlre (or shl.ter)
preclacra erc lncluded ln thc teblci there ar. not90Z bl."k preclncEs.



258

(Eiectlon: D€:cc:at1c Prrurl' be:ueer Yavr:a:r -'dcl,-sra /bia:k) and lic u:.
Ta).aedge (vh1:e), LrnlteC Sta!es Senate, 196t. l

Preclnc: Z lin1le 1n
PoDul a! 1on

- votcs tor
Talm;iee

84. r
88.1
91.8
o) a

93.9

95 .5
o, 1

88.1
87.9
86.1

8i.7
89 ,8
o( (

92.2

Y:n:nrr, ; o: L'hi tes
Lh: tlad to l{av€ VoteC Lrhire

8/..0i:
87.62
91.0
9i.7
ol (

95.t,
o, 1

87. 8
86 .0

87.0
89 .5
95.t,
9: .0

ArDuchee
Barkers
Ercuah

97.82
95. 0
9I.2

Everert Sprin8s 94.1,
FIoyC Spri.ngs 9t .4

Glensood 98.7
Hosell.s 97. I
Llndal,e 94.2
Alto Park 99.]
Gerden:-akes 99.1

!'loul Ako 9/,.1,
North Carollna 97.3
Te:ras Valtey 98.5
U:tters 91,3

To lll,ustrare, Evere!r 5pr:ngs ts 91.4: uhire,5.6i 5iack, 1n poou-

latton. tn thls preclncE, 97.61 uf the vo:es u"ni. for the shlre candl-

dzce, 2.27 for the black. lie assrne that all votes for llaward Jackson

uerr cast ty uhlre vocer5. (Th1s assuoptton is mllkely; ve oake 1t

because ee ulsh rc cal.cuLare the Elnltrw aEount of uhi:e bloc vot:ng tha:

Eust have occurred.) Then a mxlDE ct i.3i of che popuJ.aclon uas shl:e

anC voted blck. Since 9c.41 of the populaiion uas utllle, lf se subtracr

2.21 ve obiaj.n 92.::, r.he trl'niDuE percen:age of rhe popular:rn rha,, uas

sL:ie and h:c co have voted Ehite. The fracrlon of the uhlt€ popuiatj.on

Eha: had:o have vcced L'ttire Ls 92.27191.ttI or 91.71. :.: 1s loporranr io

recognlze Ehac fhis percen.-age 1s not en estlBate, bui a ElniEur. I can

cherefoie s!ate slth certain:y that fhe percentag: of L'h1res voEinB srl,re

tn Everett' SprlnBs !n Ehls electlon 1s 97.7i orrmre,



?58 )

u( Colrc._ Flo!d Lountv. Ceorej:.

'een Yaynard Jackson (bIack) and p€rDan
ate, 1968. )

s for l{inimt'al 2 of !,thites
dee -@
4 84.02
I 87.52
8 9t.o
8 97.7
9 93.5

5 95.4
3 92.1
I 87.4
9 87.8
1 g6.0

7 87.0
I 89.5
5 gs.a
7 92.0

,s 9t,.t'; vhlte, 5.62 black, ln poou_

the vo:es uent for the ehlt€ candl-

: that all vores for }taynard Jackson

BauEptlon is mllkcly; ue Eake 1r

rlEuD aoount of trhlte bloc votLng Ehat

r of l.fZ of thc popu),aclon uas sh1!e

: population sas vtrl,te, 1f ue subrracE

:rccnt.ge of the populatlon thar uas

fha fractlon of th. uhlte popuJ.atlon

'.2/9t,.42 ot 97 .71. I! ,.6 LEporranr to
,t tD c8t1E!tc, but a nlaluu. I can

thc pcrcentag3 of utlltes vorlng sttite

ts 9i.77 o, rore.

259

- L-

A11 of these precincas shcvs racral bloc votlnq, accordlf,g to the
!Dtt srrlngent deflnltl0ns comonry 8pplicd. A b€irer sratlsrlc crn arso
bo ctl,culrted, based on all the preclncts at orce, not just one, and 1n-
crudllrg thosc preclncr3 lhaE are lnterr:cial, us:,ng ecologlcal regressl0n.
For FJ'oyd couDry as a uhole 1n thls erecrion, rhat ana.r.ysls lndicates rhaE
92'07 0f Ehc shires votec for lj.eraan Taimdge, A conficience riElr can be
plrced eround rhls fl.Eure, pro.,,i.Ci.n- a bani s.ihln L,.ich I an 992 cerralr
that thc tlue !18ure lies: for thesc dara, lhrs rnrervar is gg.92 to 95.12.
rn short, I ara qulte coofldent rhat berrrecn gg.gz and g5.11 0f Ehr uhl:es
ln Floyd Counry vored uhltc. (Incldencally, about 7G,27. of rhe blacks
vot2d tLack, a h1.gh prcpcr:ion bur substrnr:al.ly ]oser:hcn the bloc votl.nB
leveL founC acong rhe uhltes.)

Uslng this kinC of analysls, rlong uith correlatlon and oulrlplc retras_
6iOBr : surveyeC soe 4l crecEiolrs 1n south carorina, lncrudi.ng tuo sEaEeslde
conteaLs (6/13/79, Secrelary of Srare, Debccraric prbary; 6l2: /7g ruof f);
seven DeBocratlc prlEarles for Scare Scnare (197j to 1976); and 33 counEyvlde
locr] cooccsts (I972 rhrough 1976), I fomd rhe folloriug proporrions of
intraracla.l vocj.ng:

, 9re.
Election(s)

6 tl7/18, siareu:de )7.t
5i27 /78, scaceu:Ce .;32

Teo eouatlu, r.vcr. electlcns,
!!gt. Or"rrrc:s, 1972 rhtdsh
1916 o?a

Percenrage of W.}rltes
Vorinr White

Pcrcen:age of Blacks
Vortnr Blaci

-

932
9A7



zffi

5-

Table 2. cont.

33 courrY level elecrlons
(Sce ApPeodlx C for 11st.)

92_7, 882

Thesc daca frotr acroas the slste of South Ca:olina shou raclsl bloc

voting bY both uhites anC blacks.

In Georgia, I have euneyed onc el'ection ln Floyd Counly and nlne eLec-

!1on3 tD Charlton Cowty, 1968 chrough 1978' 1 found the follouing:

Tablc 3. IntraracLal \'ot1nc. Georqla. 1965-1978'

Elec:1on(s) Percentage of L'hlteg
Vot 1ic Uh: t e

PercenEaSe of Blacks
Votlnl Black

De8ocratlc PriuarY, U. S. Senate'
1968, floYd CountY

Nlna DeEocrar!'c Prisari'es and

Runoffs. 1970 (1), t9tl (2),
1.975 (2), 1978 (4), coublned
for aaalYsls 87: 852

The3. elecrlons shou raclai bloc voE1n8 by eiltes, an'3 generaijy indi'cate

the sar aoong blacks.

!nAlabaoa,Itraveml;-zeddacaftontighrelecttonslnHaleCounr;''

1nc1ud1og 1970 general elecsion for probate -iudpe, 197l Beneraf ejectlon

for U. S. Bouse of Reprdienraclves, 197I' Denccratic Prlur'v 160ff iot

couaty cor[ssioner (poet 4), 1975 D€Docratlc prlEary ruoff for cl:cult

clerk, end four con[ests ln the t978 Demcrarlc Prlrn3ry and runoff' For

conP!c

t oge th

Tabla,

El ecc !

Four

Four

Thes" r

sobyr
I,

Goverrx

elecLic

forn ol

1979) ,

counLic

ItahEili

ant fEr

ble vr

e

E



!60

E8Z

of Sourh Ca:oLina shou raclal bloc

borh uhiLes anC blacks.

rlecllon ln Floyd Counry and nlne el.ec-

, 1978, I found Ehe follosing:

1965-1978.

tage of Whtteg
nr Whlt e

922,

Percencage of Elacks
Votlnl BIack

767

86287:

g b)' uhrtes, and generaliy indlcare

Iroh ej.Eht e].ections !n Hale Couxr..

)bate r-udge, 197? generai elec!1on

14 Demccrasic prlury rmoff tor

)crallc FrlEary rrnoff for c1:culr

|Dcratr.c prfunary and runoff , For

261

-6-

conpactnesg I have grouped the

together.

first four (pre-1978) and lasr four (1979)

Table 4. Intraractsl \',_____ .crlnr:. Hale Counjy. Alsbana. l97r)_197g.

Elecllons

Four elecElons, I970-1975

Four Electlons, 1978

Percentage of l.ihites
\tot inc Lrhi:p

-

987,

982

Percen',age.of Biacks
VotlnA glack

307:

83t

thesc elght eLections shou raclal bloc votjnB by boih races, overuhelnj.nglv
so by vhltes,

In lltissj,ssiFrpi f ha\,E analyzed 2 st2te.rioe blaciTwiri.-g electror.s if-171
Co',rerr.r, I9Zg U.S, Senate), one distri.cE rlx.de rt.S. iiouse of ReprespiraErves
elecLion (]975 Dsnccraric prunul.) , 2 refr,1eril3 (re;ar-.i:.:9 a!_large cci;.i:3ic;.)
form of golerruTent vs. :TBircr-counc:1 fc>nn, .].lci.:*)n, lg7?, anrl iiaitr"es5rg,
1979), and at Ieast .i0 county_le,,El contests (J.9o6 riu:.ugi] IglC) , .L.ir d.,-se
cornties: Al,corn, BoL,rar, Coahrna, fbrrest, GsorEe, I[nd3. Iiurptye],,s,
fB.,anba, tbdjson, lbrsiB]l, Nc:<rrbee, F:o-ntiss, S,.m:}oiEr, ?isiraul<lo, tji[orr,
and l€rren' Table 5 srs^.= rrost of -.rrese e.r.ec.,ons. A i-irc3l i.eve1 0i raciaL
bre votiag is e'r'idert an')ng br"acks a.o a s.-i..l. highai rate aon':vi:i:es.



262

-7 -

Table 5, Intraraclal. Vorlnq, y1sslss,.:n.1. l95e-I980.

EI ec t lcne

1971 Governor, stateuide

1978 Senste, s,tateslde

1975, Southuesr ytssisslppl,

Percent:re of Lh1te9
Vrtlrq _l.Ih1:e

99i

992

Percert3ge of Bl.acks
Vocine BIack

842

832

t))aState Senate 997

I958-1979, 8 eLecclons for the
UlsslsslpplLeglslarure (avelaged) 98i

1958-1980, 16 counEy-level electlcns
(rvsragrd) 932

The Ewo referenda sho-red conslderebl.e rac1a1 bloc votlng as veIl, eve:

Ehougl, vhlte and btack cudldatca dld not opposc each ocher. CmblnlnB r.he

resurls, 78r of aii, uh1!e voters 1n rhe trc :1!1cs supporred che comlsslm

form, whlle 91! of all black voters suppcrte,i the raycr-coucil foru. Thw

these referenda shcued vottng polarlzed along raclal 1lncs.

In order to CeterElne Lf raclal bloc voilng ls lncreastng, decreasine,

or retratDlDg consEanrr r dlr.Lded al] of the candlca!e elecrl.ons frco all
four steEes lnro rvo ca!e8orles, 1969-t9i4 and 1976-19g0. (l cElrted an-...

1975 elecclons, as belng tn the ElCdl.e of rhe ruo tlse perlods.) Baseo on

30 dlffere:t ei.ec!ions 1n fcur states, 195g-74, I found:he averaqe l.ever

of lotraracLal bl.oc voti.ng to be 94.0I arong uhlces, g3.42 auong blaci,.s.

In Ehe later period, i976-60, based on 3i,l1fferen. elecrlons, I found:he

avera8c Ievel of bioc votlng to be 92.0? anong wtrJ-res, gg.SZ ancng blacks.

Thls ls a very sllght change, of course, and stlil represents extrem].v

srrong raclal, bJ.oc votlng in both groups.
f

So

Scr:Lh--rr

ci*.jes r

vhere I

uany uh1

vays ru)

Voring R

1r peral

p!11. hav

beforc u

rt tlEudei

ruJe, rhr

strenuou!

various l

3. Blacl,.

Blac

vor5g ag

nob tl1zag

as posslb

ehlch the

race's vo!

vor lng: 1

clndldaE e

the 6;nd!l

lience se.i

83-5?9 i:



:^' .

262

-7-

ssiss..:D1. 1 t6ll-lgpO

Percent3?e of htrites
vollf,c TIhlrc 

?erceatege. of Bla:ks

9ci

992

992

d) 98:

9ns
932

slderabl.e raclal bl.oc vctlng ae ueIJ., ever

dld not oppose eech other. Coablnlng the

ln the tlro c1tlcs suSrported thc cocalsslon

rs supnorted the rayor_counctl forn, Thus

:rlzed along raclal llnes,

Lal bloc vorlng 1.r lncreaslrg, decreasing,

ril of tlie candldate electlons froo a]l
.968-I974 anC I976-1980. (I oElrred any

ddle of the tuo tlre perlods.) Based on

tcs,1968-74, I found !he averaBe IeveI
4.02 anong airj.,es, gJ. li aoong biacks.

C on 37 dlfferen: elec:tcns, I fo.md rhe

92.0? anong uh1les, gg.SZ aaong blacks.

curse, and st1L1 represents extrcmlv
grouP!.

Soae people have asser!ed that raclal. bloc vpgLng 1s decreaslnt ln EheSct+,llejn ard Bords s+.ates, to trhe Fojn! rrnere :.t no lon?er holds; Lhere .lreciCes such as Sr\?na, DeLal,ar:e a-.rd ChaFl EilL r,trare L\is may ha.re occ..:::eg.
It hrs not occurred 1n an!, of che arersyhcre I htve lsng ny research. Tir^y" 1, stlIl a tendency on the par: ofreny uhlres and nay older t,lacLs to rake for granted rhlt uhlres cill aI_vays rule, ,,rusr,, ruLe, and al:hough thac baI

vorrng Rlghcs Act of r96j and the Dasslve r.n,t"t 

*r been shaken by rhe
ro1 deselregarion oi I969_;0.It Pers1rts strongJ.v. Ir uill be Igg3 brlore rraff of rhe south,s popuLirlonulll have been born afEer the passage of che Vorlng Rlghrs Acr, even j.onterbeforr Eost elecced ofIlclals v1I1 have been born afrcr 1!s passage. Oldriticudes dle hard, aod becausc tany uhi:cs scltl be]leve thar uhires trusaruJa, thcrc is a fora of,,racial patrlorlsn,,Ehar rE|derjles therr sotrettDejttrcnuous cfforls to blsc vote and to ruintain

vrrlous l..inds cf man'pur.arions of erectlon ;j"."": ,r"",::.:"' 

ch!oush

263

847,

832

o1t

877

9LZ

Black polltical leaders are verv asare c,f
rror:!g agalnsr che,, ,. r," ^:,.-.-'.*"t: 

('1 the llkelihooc cf sh:.e bloc
o are pol.itica) ana)-],str;: as one put it, ,,BIaci(

lobr'l'l!ac10n 1n lrlssisslppi shouii proceed as quier).y anc l.nconsplcuouslyts posslbIe.,,I In 
""r,1, 

of the e:.ect1ons I har
uhlch the black canclci 

re analyzed' those conlests 1nitc received the hlgiesr prcDcr::on of h:s,/her omrace's voLes vere preclsely the eLecrlons narked by the greates: ei1te b.iocvor:ogl This ls contrary to coEicn sense, L+lich uoujd tell c tilat:ne brackc'ndldare sith Ehe treatest br'ack svpp613 vas croba5!y ih€ EDSt ouairfied,the oanclcare sho had orBaii.zec lhe Dosr visj.bte l".o.rr", ;a',;"';"". _""_r.Hence ee,.!igh! expecf that s,/he sou.l,d al.sc receivG ch€ greares: propo:rton

8:1-a?9 C



2U

-9 -

of ylllg suPPorEl !f vhltes are suPPortint candidaEes because of lhelr

quellflcsrtons' eaopaltn vislblliry, etc' llct so' ln nany lnstaces 1t

t9 prectsely ihc vlabIe bllck cmdidate nho suffers Ehe Ereat€st atrounf

of thit. bloc oPPoslllon.

ThlsDeansthatblackPolltica}leadersfa.e3oncthlnEofadouble

blnd.TheyneedtobemoresctlveEhanghlt,ecandl.ijaceslnordert,o

ooblllze thelr consEl.luencies, for ue shall see r:har black southeroers

are 1e36 11ialy Chan rrhlres, on averager to retlsler' turn out at Ehe

polls, and vora inlraraclslly' Yet es btack candlda:eB mob1llze' they

bulld greater utlte backlash' Thc fu11-sIace requlreolnt Ekes lhls

d.tleuoa for black Ieader! mch mre acute, uhere il exlars' For 1f blacks

run ! full a1are, they rhereby signal uh1te6 thaE a bl'ack takeover' rarher

than a shartBg of pouer, ls lntended and ]oons' llolhlnB 1s Bore effeetlve

ln Bob111zln8, uhlte Eurnout and bloc vo!tn8' But lf they run a partlal

3ls!a, the! ahe)'theBselves lnadversenElv Busr supply a;art of Ehe "vhite"

vote Eotals thal vill dcfeat their orn candldate(s)'

At-Iargc electlons slEtIarlv uork against ninorlty candldates' F1rst.

oyresearchhasshonEhatasoutherncomsiEyneeds!o6"65]99722

black ln order Ehat black candidares yil] have an ew chance ro be elecred.2

AcouDtyJratls55Zb]ack!ntoca]PoPulationisprobablyon).y50Ib1ack

1D VoElng A8,c PoPu.l'at1on (VAP), because c! conrlnulng black outtrrgraEion

froB a riajority of soulhern coun!ies. ln reglsrration 1! rs probably onl)-

rbou! 552 black and tn rurnou: at lhe Polls, perhaps 527 black' mlnB ro

.a hosr of rocloeconGJc fecrors, such es type of Job and lncooc leve]' rher'

ls bloc voEl,nB ar the poJls, blacks are "lnferi-or" to uhltes, caEsins Probabl€
.f 

'

dcfcatforrb}sclcsDdldal.fronr65lblack'totdpopulatlon'NotEany

c0

an

co

ET

1n

on

rn

u$

lrc

1D

Ehr

he

an(

be

elt

fec

su;

clr

inc

ch€

aPa



2u

-9 -

e Bupporring candldlres because of th€1r

111ty, 
"tc. llor so. ln nany 1r,_srances lt

clodldate niro suffers lhe greatcsr aooun!

ltical leadcrs face sonethl:g of a double

t1v. t.han uhlte candldaEes ln order to

for ye shall see rihat black Soutlerners

n avcrage, to retister, turn out at Ehe

Y:t es black candlda:ea nob111ze, they

Thc fuLl-slace requlrencnr rukec thls
Dora acuter uhere it ex!,rEs, For 1f blacis
ri,lnal uh1r.s !h8r 8 black takcover, rsrhcr

:cnded and loons. llolh1ng 1s norc effectlve

I bloc votlng. But Lf they run a parrlal

rdvertently oust supply a lart of the "vh1te,,

rerr oLTr candldate(s).

'ly uork against n:noriry candldates. Flrsr,
,uthern corEstty needs to be 652 co 722

detes sill have an qven chance to bc ej,ected.2

otal popularlon !s probabl). only 60: black

beceuse of conElnulng black outErgratlon

nEi!s. ln reg:srraiion it is probably onl.r

.t the poLls. perhaps 521 b).ack, oulnB ro

, such ls type of Job and lncooc Leve]. Ther.

rcks :re "lnferior" to rJhltes, causlng probrble

on r 65I black tolrl popularlon. Nor Eany

-l(r -

corrrElag or c1c1es ere 65i Lo 72;. black, .rs enrlrles, 6o no! ma:rv such

aarttler l^.ave Euch chance of erecti.nS brlck officrar.g ur)en elecrions are

cooducred at-Iarge.

Second, at_Large electlons dlsadvsntage black canpalgners and advan_

srt. BJorlty office-seekers. Blacks carpaiEn differently from uhltes,
., Efgt of che Jurisdlctj.ons I,vc studied. Thev are nore llkelv to rely
gg personal conEdcEs, speaking rt chrlrch!.s dr.l organlzat lonal mccLlnBs,
aod doo!_r,o_door canvassint. lJbile vhltes usl ttiese meLhodsr they aiso
Brc Br9 loalllngs, radio and TV ads, and other cechnlques oi Ehe Dass

Idls. obvlously black rechods are lncffecttve 1n reschln!! a larle area,
l! shlch seve:a: at_],3rge candidates ccrDeta. And ao the extent thaE
the black candidare [iBht sultch to,,uhlte,,stvle, uslng the mass rEd1a,
h. rl8ks stlDulating uhite turnout ani b.loc vrE in,l agalust hla/.her,

I hsve noa rnriored gerrw.ar.derinii pra.ticcg of uh1:e 2oll uorLers,
and other Dethods of insurrnt uhrre vlcrcry ar tlre polls. glrc!- soulr:_
bc canCj.dates are avarp of these iactors too. In con.junctlon ulCh ar_:arge
alcctlons, shi,te bloc voclnt, anC inadequ3te poiJuiut torr majorlties, these
(rccors cause a chlr.rlng effect upon blacil candrdates and upcn vocers,
rupporE for theu. Thw thev affect black rer!st ratlon and :urnout 1n a

ilrcular process, givlnt rlse to charges of ,,apatnv,,. Bu! &y researclr
lndlcates rhat black regisErarlon and cumout arc lrigher in dls::i:Ls ynere
the),have an even chance of elecring s-.rreoner siroulrrc that realrsm, oo:
rpachy, lles beh:nC sone of the Ioy regtstratio!r and turnou( flgures.

{. Socloecon3rlc Dlfferences and the \eeC for black tipcr..i Official5.
Also underJ.;-1ng the Ifier biack regisrr3ilon and Lurrioui fisures are

zas



266

- tl -

vasr differences belueen rhe vhlte and brack r)opulatlona rn tlre souLh. 9Je

urgenrly need r980 census daLa to up(rarc Lhe:;c ciffercnceE, and Ehere r.s no

doubE ghat they have lessened moderately. Bur a Bulf renalns. Tabre 6 shova
rhe Sulf 1n one countv, chosen nore crr less at randon tron rhose I have

studled. Warren Count.y, Hlssissippi, lnc).udes Vlcl,.sburt9, adjoins Jack_son

and Hlndg county, and is one of the more urba'und protresslve coun.les 1n

the Deep South; I d1d nor pick a,'backvarcl,,coun:y ro nake my point.

.d_n ecucaric,o among the adult popu).ation (25 and oJ.der):tJhlte nales )0.4 years
Black nrales 7.0 vears
Whlre f euLes 10. ? years
Black females g,4 years

llJ.lteracy and senj.-literacv anonA !irtea6h race, ?5 anci older, slch O_n vears or
3lu:r popu"l3rj.ci (proporrron of

erluc::1on):t"hlres
Blacks

Nuber of college graduares:
lr1rl c e s
Blacks

20 09
3ri

Part l. 0cc::arion ard uncl!lo.,Tenr.propor: ion ur u rc:IlilifTn-fre cclLa: br race:
r5ite_ collJr (professlonal, technical,
rnd krnoreC; managers, adhlnls.-rarors;
farr mnurers and oEers; clerica.l.; salca)blue coilar (cra!tsmen, forern; jijeratltr

thi,. e s 64.27

39 .8'i
transDcra: iaborers an<i fam labor; se

" uor^r,r:.i dumestr: vcri<erS)
t00.0:

Sllcks 18,01 uh l re
82,02 blue

col i ar
collar

100.02 .
trnat!lo-vrent, proportlon of clvilj,an labor force, by race:Whlres 2.92BLacks 7 .Zl

Part 1. E<iucatlon.
lledlan educarJc,o

Trt

P.r

Pe rt

't

1970 r

cveD 1

lcge g

coDloy

etges,

1c.t'tnl

shcltdu

tieaf F

Paper.

i

'n-
ra



266

- It -

nlre and black lropuletlona ln the South. lre

to up(late thest differcncea, and there 1s no

Doderately. Bur a gulf renatns. Table 6 shoug

llore or less aE random r-rom those I have

isippl, lncludes Vtcksburg, adjolns Jackson

I the more urban Jnd progresslve councles 1n

a "backuard', cJunty to nake my poinr.

iocloecononlc position bv Race. l.Iarren Countv.:

adult popularion (25 anC older):I0.4 years
7.0 years

I0.2 years
8.4 years

cv among the
-/. years of

1.17.
?7,32

s:
2009

313

m€nL-
uh1 ce
60.27,

39.8i

coLlar by race:
uhite- col l:r (prcft.sslonai, technical,
.rnd kinored; managersr adnlnlsEratorgi
iarr mn!flers and omers; clerlcal; sales)blue coliar (craftsmen, forermni 

"pur.iflcl;transporr; laborers and fam iabor; serutctuorkers; dmestrc porkers)

L'hl te col.lar
bLue collar

rrblc 5 , Conc.

Par! 3. Inc:re.
l.redlan lnccEc ( f aaj.I j,cs

lIhltE
B Iack s

Ploporrlon of each r.cr
Lh1tes
Blecks

267

l, -

a.!ld ,rrrelaBed
s9 782
s3794

bcJ.ou poverty
7.32

49.0t

j.ndlvtdual,s ) :

Line (f aal]es):

r00.02

18. 0z
82.o2
i00.02

i clvl
2.97,
7 .27

aduir popul.3rlon (proport ion of
educa.,lon):

Ilan Labor force, by race:

pl rEblng:

pl '6h tng:

Tabrc 5 shovs a E.jor differencc ln ecucar:onr an6 slnce oosc of rnese
1970 adufrs ar. stil'l eJ.lve, ue cury prcsBe thac Esr of :his ga. pe:sists,
cvea 1f strldes are belng o8de cducsriornlly for Binor::v AnericalE. CJ:_
).ege graduares are a acarcr comodlly 1n Che black cse8uni:y. In terhs o:
capl,olrenr catetoryr ._he,,blue co.LLar,, designation dcnoses eaoloyees on
c;rges, RoE salary; such eEFloyecs face sorxruhar grearer jtff:cujEr, !n
lcavlng eork ro:eg:,.Ecr and !o vot.e. The raclal dlfference here is over_
shelElEg. So:,E the d,lffercnca ln oedj,an income. To ihe.xtent rhe poli-
trcal, par:Lclpaclon deEanCa @ncy 

- ao 
"""o"irn, Eo subscrlbe ro a ness_

P:Pet,._c? our a T'v'seEt !o hlre a babyslcter __ bLacks are cl.elrly dtsaC_



:i

28

- 13 -

vanr3ged, and the ltterarure 1n Polltical soclol.ogy and polltlcsl scl€nce

conslstenEly polnt.9 !o lncone as s deternlnar,r of partlclpatlon.

Table 6 al.so lndlcates one rea3on vhy biacks cannot rely on vhtBe

offlclelr to represent theE: uhlte voters have very dlfferent needs and

lnteresca than black voters, because thev face verv d1!ferent socloecononic

positlons. Clearly the black populatloa needs tc have an enforced houing

ccde, slnce anong black renEers, 552 live in hohes deflclenr tn plubing;

only a handful of uh.l.te renters face tlils prolricn. $Ih1res, conversely, are

uuch oore likely co ou:1 lhelr en hones (anC to on blacks' hores). Hence

r.,tr1re and black interests here dlver8e. IE is I trulsn in polltlcs th3r

offlclals are ro!e responsive to those uho <.lected the.,, ihaa Lo those vto

dld not. A uhlae offlcial ls mre llkelv to Iisten to his supporters

(uhlces) Ehan h1s past opponeirts (blacl,.s), even i.f he or strc ls trying !o

court the lalcer, uhen the tuo Sroups have opr,,.ing inrerests.

It mjgh+- be argued tlra-- r':tl': at-iarge ballo'jJlg, bJ.aci.s c.c.:1c pia;; a

"balarce of pohEr" role o\rer a nrfiber of calcidates, jns'.ead oi elecuxrl

] or 2 of tlEjj o"rn to lrtilDriE}.- posrtici.s on a board. Thrs is rtot uE

posilion of black le.ders w1th qrtsil I h.'\re r:alked. TIey !,oulci ratier ha\re

screone, even if onli'a rLirority of tlE offi.ials, 'rn on'' tne i.Elrijcai

plEess Curing tle fctrr-year term of office, t-rra, pl.ay a role at tlE out-

set and then periups be forgotten. And tt,esr' Ceilslrs sEalisl:cs 'ElP sisvJ

u't'ri, lt Ls ii,:fi3Jl! ior eten tlE Ltate of:icldl elected wi'rr, blacii suD.p3rt

tc be able to do nD.rch ior the black ccnrm:niij 5:rJ1.ut al:'Jne::nq hrs,'re:

wiLr.te stppcrte.:s.

2.

3. I
E

€
a

C

o
t
t
D

e

1. r{
i:
tr
tl
fr
s{

( . ir*h
ar
of
th
ne

!,r
lc

\: o.

wI
fc
PI
B]
ri
of



268

3_

)Iltlcal soclology and poIlticsl sclence

r determlrEnt of partlclpa!lon.

Eason uhy blacks cannot rely on whlte

tc voters have very dlfferent needs and

Jse they face verv dlfferent socloecononic

ulatlon needs ro have an enforced howing

562 live in homes deflclenr ln plwbj-ng;

Jce thls prolrlum. l'ftrltes, conversely, are

homes (and to on blacks'homes). Hence

ver8e, It is .q trulsh in politlcs thar

those who <lecced rhen chan !o lhose uho

c llke1v to Iis!en to hj.s supporters

(blacks), even 1f he or she ls trying to

oups have opu,'sing interests.

, at-Iarce ballotini, b)-aci.s c'o*l"d pial' a

mbe: of cardrdates, r-nstead o:- elecr::rg

ositioi)s on a tDa:d. This is rtct r-he

fir I h...\E talked. They r.ould raule! lE\re

of tle offj,cials, "in on' tne polltical

I of office, t-rEn pl.ay a role at trE ouE-

r. And tr.ese C-ersl:s siatistjcs i)e1p sio{

$,tdte officiaL elected wi'5 blaci: suppor.

Ick ccnmJlrt)' 'rrthcut ali6ia|-rng 5rs,':e:

269

!d[.roF coNcLusloNs oF TESTIMCNY, JAUIS w. LoEhEN , 5./t9/8)

SUBCO}IYITTEE ON CIVIi AIID CONSTITUTIONAL RlGIJTS

I, Whe.,her or not racial bloc voting exists is an empirical
guestion. It is relatively easy to determine whai percent
of whitesvoted for white candidates and what percent of
blacks voted for black candidates. Applying the ',16Ot
rule" then gives a straightforware deiiniti5n as to whether
raciaL bloc voting obtains.

Bacial bloc voting did characterize all of the a:-eas in the
South that I have anaLyzed. Whites bloc vote overwheLr',inoIv,
usuaIll' between 90t and 99+?. Blacks bloc vote stroncJ.1.,
ranging froh 80t to 95t, depending perhaDs on the candidate,
qualifications, etc.

Race determines most whites' votes in elections h,here white
and black candidates run aqainst each other. It isn't
education, income, or some othe! variable. Race alone
accounts for more than 80t of the outcome; correlations of
.9 and even.95 and .99 are comon, where L.OO represents a
completel), perfect relationshto between race of volers and
outcone of election. This j-s an astontshingl], strong rela-
tionship: whites are tnuch more J.ikely to vote white in
these Sour-hern jurisdictjons than Democrats are to vote
Democratic, or than whites are to vote white in many
elections in the North.

White bloc voting is inportant first of all because it
indica+-es sti11-polarj.zeC w)^,ite attitudes to$ard blacks and
touard the possibilit)'of their meaningful participation in
the electoral process, In many areas, whites mai-ntain a
furious derermination to deny blacks even a minoritv reDre-
sen:ation on elected boards.

whjte bloc voting has an adirtional numerical imp,licat!o:r
for black participatio: in con,,unctjon with certain election
practjces, sucl: as at-faroe elections ol- qer;:rnanderinc.
Elac):s ma1' be effec!ivelj, shut out of meanjnoiul uart:ci:e-
tion in the politlcal nrocess unless the)- total 65i tc ?Li
of '.re p!r!)ulation.

ldhite bloc voting and tl-re oolarized ati-itudes it !-erresents
are f i;al l\. jmpot-+-ant be.a:st t ne., al-e bo-.1, car:se al.,i resul-i
of the rac:ali1'oo1ar:zei socf,ar s.-rirciure tl,a+- stili narks
thE S:j+-l',, as a lecacv fro;..-hi r:i-a cf seat.ecatiorr- Llacj<
neeis a:i :r.te:es:s si:ll c:f:t: r,ayleclr'-fron white neeis
and interests, beca!se liaci:s iace dra'raijcali)' iifferent
problers rel.a+,inc r.o ir,cL-,rL€, hr-,'rslnc, and ei:uaa!ion. So
long as r,oting is rac:a111 p,clar:ze:l, white electeC offjcjals
will fird lt diff:cu-rt to be resl.,rsive t.o the:r black con-
stitu::is withour afiena:irc !::ir-e supllDt-t. Thus, blacjr
vct.ers r,ei-d a full cr:c:t::itv i6 ejec-- black offic:als-

e.

3.

a.

6,.