Bratton v. City of Detroit Appendix to Petition

    No$ 3 -  £ £ /

I n  tfje Supreme Court of tfje flimtetr &tate$
O C T O B E R  T E R M , 1983

Hanson Bratton, Gale Bogenn, W illiam Sh ell, Patrick 
J ordan, C harles M ahoney, individually and on behalf of all 

others similarly situated; and T he Detroit Police L ieutenants 
& Sergeants Association,

Petitioners,

vs.

C ity of Detroit, a Michigan Municipal Corporation; 
C oleman A. Young, Mayor; W illiam L. H art, Chief of Police; 

Detroit Board of Police C ommissioners; and Guardians of 
M ichigan, David L. Simmons, Arnold D. Payne, J ames E . 

C rawford, C linton Donaldson, W illie J ohnson, K enneth M. 
J ohnson, Alfred Brooks,

Respondents.

On Petition For Writ Of Certiorari To The 
United States Court Of Appeals For The Sixth Circuit

APPENDIX TO PETITION

R amsdell, Oade & F eldman 
by: K. Preston Oade, J r .  (P‘28506) 
Counsel o f  Record fo r  Petitioners 
25130 Southfield Rd., Ste. 100 
Southfield, Michigan 48075 
(313) 552-9400

M ountain States L egal Foundation 
by: Fred D. Fagg, III 

William H. Mellor III 
Alison D. Ling 
Clint Bolick 

Co-Counsel
1200 Lincoln Street, Ste. 600 
Denver, Colorado 80203 
(303) 861-0244

RENAISSANCE PRINTING, INC. — 76 W. ADAMS 
8TH FLOOR, DETROIT, MICHIGAN 48226 (313) 964-3185



ia

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE

Opinion O f The United States Court
O f Appeals For The Sixth C ir c u it ................................  la

Certificate O f Public Im portance By The
Attorney General O f The United S t a t e s .................... 46a

O rder Denying The United States O f Am erica
Leave To Intervene ..................................... ..................... 47a

Petition For Rehearing And Suggestion
O f Rehearing En B a n c ....................................................... 51a

Order Denying Petition For R eh earin g ...........................  77a

Dissenting Opinion From  Order Denying
Rehearing En Banc ............................................................ 79a

Order O f Judgm ent Affirming District C o u rt............... 83 a

Opinion O f The U . S. District Court For
The Eastern District o f M ichigan .............................. .. 85a

Final Opinion O f The U . S. District C o u rt....................  235a

Judgm ent O f The U . S. District C o u r t ...........................  255a



la

RECOMMENDED FOR FULL-TEXT PUBLICATION 
Set, Sixth Circuit Rule 24

No. 80-1837

UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS
FOR THE SIXTH CIRCUIT

Hanson Bratton, et aL,

Plaintiffs-Appellants,

v.

City  of Detroit, et aL,

Defendants-Appellees, 

and

On Appeal from the 
United States D istrict 
Court for the Eastern 
D istrict of Michigan.

Guardians of Michigan, et aL,

Intervening Defendants• 
Appellees.

Decided and Filed March 29, 1983

Before: Merritt and J ones, Circuit Judges, and Celebrezze, 
Senior Circuit Judge.

Jones, Circuit Judge, delivered the opinion of the Court, in 
Which Cf T Ti'̂ B r77";V Senior Circuit Judge, (p. 42) filed a 
concurring opinion. Merritt, Circuit Judge, (pp. 43-45) 
filed a separate opinion concurring in part, dissenting in part.



2a

J ones, Circuit Judge This appeal arises out of the contro­
versy surrounding the adoption and administration of a 
voluntary affirmative action program for the Detroit Police 
Department The gJaintiffs-appellajits herein are a class of 
white police sergeants who claim to have been adversely 
affected by die operation of the program as it relates to the 
guidelines for the promotion of officers from the rank of ser­
geant to that of lieutenant1 * The appellants assert that the 
sergeant-to-lieutenant element of the plan violates their rights 
under Title VII (42 U.S.C. 1 2000, et s eq .) , 42 U.S.C. 1 1983, 
and the fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitu­
tion.

In a series of judgments, culmmating with the entry of a 
final order on November 17, 1980,3 the district court thor­
oughly addressed each of the appellants’ claims. Thai court 
concluded that (1 ) the adoption of an affirmative action plan 
was a legitimate response to the reality of prior thscrixnsnatey 
practices,3 (2 ) die operation and proposed duration of this 
segment of the plan was reasonable and, thus, permissible 
under Title VII and the Fourteenth Amendment,4 (3 ) the 
plan, though voluntary, should be protected from collateral 
attack by incorporation into a judicial decree,® (4) the plain­
tiffs were not entitled to a jury trial on disputed issues of fact 
concerning the validity of the plan,* and (5 ) the defendants

i In Detroit Police Officers Association v. Young, 308 F.2d 871
(Stls. Cir. 1979), cert, denied, 452 U.S. 938 (1981), this Court addressed 
the validity of the patrolman-to-sergeant stage of this plan. The 
district court’s determination that there had been no showing of 
prior intentional discrimination and that the plan, therefore, violated 
Title YT3 was reversed as clearly erroneous. The case was then 
remanded with guidelines for a consideration of constitutional issues 
suailar to those which we reach here.

3 Baker  v. City of Detroit, 504 F.Supp. 841 (E.D. Mich. 1980).
a B aker  v. City of Detroit, 483 F.Supp. 930 (ELD. Mich. 1979).
*  B aker  v. City of Detroit, supra, 483 F.Supp. at 993 and B aker  v. 

City of Detroit, supra, 504 F.Supp. at 844-46.
S B aker  v. City of Detroit, supra, 504 F.Supp. at 846-48.
4 B aker  v. City of Detroit, 458 F.Supp. 379 (ELD. Mich. 1978).

2 ' ■ Bratton, et d . v. City of Detroit, et aL No. 804837



No. 80-1837 Bratton, et al. v. City of Detroit, et’ d> ■ 3

were entitled to summary judgment with regard to the plain­
tiffs’ claims for monetary judgments other than back pay/ 
The appellants contest the propriety of each of these rulings in 
turn-* * Recognizing the importance and the difficulty of the 
issues raised by this appeal, this Court has given careful con­
sideration to each of the appellants’ contentions.

We now holcf that the affirmative action plan adopted for 
the Detroit Police Department is a valid and permissible 
remedy for the clearly identifiable past discriminatory prac­
tices in that department’  For the reasons detailed below, we 
affirm, a ll . judgments rendered by the district court in this 
matter.

I

In 1974, the Detroit Police Department voluntarily adopted 
a set of affirmative action plans in an effort to eliminate dis­
criminatory hiring practices and to increase the number of 
minority applicants being promoted from existing promotion 
lists. The three basic job levels in the department are patrol-

7 B aker  y. City o f Detroit, 483 F.Supp. 9X9 (EJD. Mich. 1979).
* The appellants have also objected to the district court's treatment 

of several issues addressed in its decision on the liability issues in 
B aker  v. City of Detroit, mpra, 483 F.Supp. 930 at 904-95, to wit: 
(1) the appellants claim that the court erred in finding that their 
rights under the Michigan Fair Employment Practices Act and Art 
1 See. 2 of the MichigMi Constitution were not violated; (2) that 
toe court erred in Ending that the applicable collective bargaining 
agreement had not been violated since there had been no “refusal 
to bargain” within the tanrn of that agreement; and (3) that the 
court erred in finding that there had been no denial of due process 
since the city charter did not create a property right in public 
employment and that the Board had not violated the charter in 
any event

We have considered each of these claims and for the reasons set 
forth in the district court’s opinion, find that they are all without 
merit Accordingly, we will not address them further in the course 
of our disposition of tins appeal Accord, VanAken v, Found 541 
F.Supp. 44S, 460 (EJX Mich. 1982).

* See Detroit Police Officers Association v. Young, supra at note 
1» (addressing evidence of prior discriminatory practices on the 
part of the department).



4a

masi sergeant and lieutenant An end goal of a 50 /50  staffing 
ratio was adopted for all levels.10 The portion of the plan 
pertinent to the instant appeal is that affecting the guidelines 
for promotions from, sergeant to lieutenant

Prion to  1974, all candidates for promotion w ere ranked on 
a single list Each was given a numerical rating based on 
various factors including, inter alia, their individual score on a 
w itten  exam .”  The promotions would then be man* by  
beginning with the highest-ranking candidate and working 
down, th e list until all available positions were filled.

The. affirmative action plan does not alter the basic criteria; 
for determining promotion eligibility, nor does it alter the 
minimum requirements necessary for consideration for the 
rank of lieutenant13 The plan mandates that two separate 
lists for promotion be compiled, one for black and the other 
for white officers. The rankings on those lists are then mad* &  
accordance with the same numerical rating system previously 
employed. The promotions are made alternately from each 
list so that white and black officers are promoted in equal 
numbers. This 50 /50  plan is to remain in effect until fifty 
percent of the lieutenant corps is black, an event estimated- to 
occur in 1990.

The appellants are a group of white officers in the depart­
ment whose promotions were allegedly delayed or denied 
because of the affirmative action plan. Their complaint es­
sentially is that had all candidates been ranked on a single 
roster, their rankings would have been higher than some or 
all of those blacks promoted under the plan. It is this result

4s:- Bratton^ et aL v. City of Detroit, et aL No. 80-1837

9̂ See Id., 608 F.2d at 680-81, for a full description of the details 
of the Board’s overall plan.

t^Id. (other criteria included length of service, performance or 
service ratings set by superiors, degree of college education or credits, 
veterans’ points, and an oral interview).

>2 Only candidates receiving a raw score of 70 or better on the 
written exam are qualified to be listed on the roster, no matter how 
they fare on other items of consideration.



5a

which the appellants contend is the product o£ illegal dis­
crimination.

The appellants do not argue in this appeal, nor could it be 
seriously contended given die numerous judicial determina­
tions on the issue, that affirmative action plans are per se 
illegal.13 14 See, FuUiiive v. KLutznick, 448 U.S. 448, 100 SiC t 
2758, 65 L.EdL2d 902 (1 9 8 0 ); Regents of University of Cali­
fornia v. Bakke, 438 U.S. 265, 98 S .C t 2733, 57 L.EcL 750
(1 9 7 8 ); Williams v. City of New Orleans, _____ F .2d  ____
(5th  Cir. December 16, 1982);, Boston Chapter, NAACP v. 
Beecher, 679 F.2d  965 (1st Cir. 1982); Stotts v. Memphis Fire 
Department, 679 F.2d 541 (6th  Cir. 1982). See also United 
States v. City of Miami, Florida, 614 F .2d  1322 ( 5th Cir. 1980) 
and cases cited therein. This is true whether the challenge has 
been raised under Title VII, see United Steelworkers of Amer­
ica, AFL-CIO-CLC v. W eber, et a l, 443 U.S. 193, 209, 99 S. 
C t 2721,2729, 61 L .Ed.2d 480 (1 9 7 9 ); Williams v. City o f New 
Orleans, supra; LaRiviere v. EEOC  & California Highway 
Patrol, 682 F.2d  1275 (9th  Cir. 1982), the Fourteenth Amend­
ment, see Valentine v. Smith, 654 F .2d  503 ( 9th Cir. 1981), 
or both, see Boston Chapter, NAACP v. Beecher, supra, In 
fact, this Court has previously found that, under the appropri­
ate circumstances, affirmative action plans can withstand either 
challenge.14 Detroit Police Officers Association v. Young, 608 
F.2d  671 (6th  Cir. 1979), cert, denied, 452 U.S. 938 (1981). 
Th® appellants do contend, however, that this particular 
affirmative action plan overstepped the bounds of statutory 
and constitutional validity.1*

No. 80-1837 Bratton, et al. v. City o f Detroit, et al. S

13 As Justice Brennan noted in his concurring opinion in Regents 
o f University of California v. B akke, 438 U.S. 265, 336 (1978), no 
decision of the Supreme Court has ever adopted the proposition that 
the Constitution must be colorblind. See also Stotts v. Memphis 
Fire Department, 679 F.2d 541, 553 (8th Cir. 1982).

14 See note 1, supra.
1 s The appellants have challenged this plan under Title VTT, the 

Fourteenth Amendment and 42 U.S.C. 5 1983. Because we find that,



6a

- In  assessing the merits of these claims, we will first analyze 
the guidelines under which we are to judge the propriety of 
any given affirmative action program. Reviewing the particu­
lar facts of the case before us in light of those principles will 
then enable us to determine whether, in fact, the plaintiffs’ 
rights' have been violated by the operation of this particular 
plan.

H

A- Title VU

In U nited Steelw orkers o f A m erica v. W eber, supra, the 
Supreme Court made clear that Title VII does not prohibit 
all remedial, race-conscious affirmative action plans. 443 U.S. 
at 209. In W eber, the Supreme Court examined a voluntary 
affirmative action program adopted by a private employer 
which guaranteed fifty percent of the openings in an in-plant 
emft-training program for black employees. The Court con­
sidered the terms and policies of Title V II and concluded that, 
although private employers were not required to implement 
affirmative remedial programs to offset prior racial imbalances, 
the Act does not prohibit voluntary race-conscious actions 
which are consistent with the antidiscrimination policy of the 
statute. See D etroit P olice O fficers A ssociation  v. Young, 808 
F.2d at 889.

The Court then proceeded to examine whether the particu­
lar affirmative action program before it fell within the bounds 
of what is deemed permissible under the ambit of Title VU. 
The Court refused to draw any bright line for defining the 
outer limits of a permissible affirmative action plan. It did, 
however, single out some particular features of the plan before 
it which compelled the conclusion that that program was “on

8 Bratton, et al. v. City of Detroit, et cd. No. 80*1837

with regard to liability in affirmative action cases, the analysis under 
5 1983 is identical to that under the Fourteenth Amendment, we 
simply omit any discussion o f I 1983 until we reach a consideration 
of the appellants’ claim for damages.



7a

the permissible side of the line.” U nited Steelw orkers of 
Am erica v. W eber, 443 U.S. at 208. The plan was aimed at 
breaking down prior patterns of segregation and racial heir- 
archy, it was deemed to not “unnecessarily trammer the in­
terests of the white employees and was merely a temporary 
measure, to end when the manifested racial imbalance no 
longer existed.

There is no doubt that, on its facts, W eber dealt with 
whether and to what extent a private employer could adopt 
an affirmative action plan and remain consistent with the 
mandates of Title VII. This does not mean, however, that the 
analysis in W eber is inapposite to a case jn which a- public 
employer has been charged with a violation of Title V II for 
the implementation of similar programs. On the contrary, 
Title V II was specifically amended to include public em­
ployers within its purview so that states and their official agen­
cies are explicitly subject to Title VH mandates.14 In the 
tiaditional context of minority complaints under Title VII, 
the analysis employed for determining whether a statutory 
violation has occurred has been applied consistently, whether 
the employer is a public or private entity.17 There is no reason 
to alter the reach of Title V II in the present context1*

No, 80-1837 Bratton, et d . v. City of Detroit, et d . 7

M See The Equal Employment Opportunity Act of 1972, Pub. L. 
No. 92-281, §§2(1), (5), 86 Stat 103.

'7  See e.g., Texas Dept, of Community Affairs v. Burdine, 450 
U.S. 248 (1981); Grano v. Dept, of Development of City of Columbus, 
837 F.2d 1073 ( 8th Cir. 1980); Horace v. City of Pontiac, 624 F.2d 
765 (6th Cir. 1980); Calderon v. Martin County, 639 F,2d 271 (5th 
Cir. 1981); Dumas v. Town o f Mt. Vernon, Ala., 612 F.2d 974 (5th 
Cir. 1980).

Under some circumstances, Title VII places all employers, 
whether public or private, in a difficult positon. Where prior dis­
criminatory practices have occurred and can be shown, the employer 
is subject to liability to those minorities who have been the vic­
tims of that discrimination. In attempting to remedy past acts and 
to thereby avoid such liability, the employer runs the risk of being 
charged with a violation of Title VII by those nonminorities who 
axe no longer benefiting from the employer’s past discriminatory 
practices. We believe that it was largely this unique burden which 
Title VH places on an employer qua employer that the Weber court 
endeavored to reconcile.



8a

W here a public employer adopts a voluntary affirmative 
action measure which satisfies the bounds of permissibility 
gleaned from W eber, that employer will be insulated from  
Title VII liability. Williams v. City of New Orleans, supra; 
LaRiviere v. EEOC, 882 F ,2d  at 1279; Boston Chapter, 
NAACP v. Beecher, 679 F.2d  at 965. This conclusion lay be­
hind a significant portion of our analysis and holding in 
Young and we do not now deviate from that stance. Cf. 
VanAken v. Young, 541 F.Supp. 448 (E .D . Mich. 1982).

8 Bratton, et d . v. City of Detroit, et aL No. 80-1837

B. Fourteenth Amendment

To hold that a public employer is not liable under Title VII 
where its affirmative action program satisfies W eber does not 
necessarily end the inquiry where, as here, that employer has 
also been charged with a violation of the Fourteenth Amend­
m ent The Supreme Court analyzed the scope and intent of 
Title VII in W eber; it in no way intimated that had the p lan 
before it been subject to the strictures of the Fourteenth 
Amendment the test of permissibility would have been the 
same. Instead, it is clear that the Court has chosen to keep the 
two analyses distinct.19 When we cease analyzing the actions 
of a public employer qua employer and begin to examine the 
validity of those actions as state action, a constitutional inquiry 
is appropriate.2® Accord Detroit Police Officers Association

’♦ It is sigiflcant that Bakke was not cited as authority for the 
ultimate resolution of the issues in Weber and that the court did 
not later rely on Weber when it again addressed the constitutional 
bounds of permissible affirmative action in Fullilove.

In Ui® lower court opinion in this case, Judge Keith recognized 
the distinction between a Weber Title VTI analysis and the full 
analysis required where a governmental employer is also charged 
with a violation of the Fourteenth Amendment. He went on, how­
ever, to conclude that the standards discussed in Weber sufficiently 
delineated the bounds of reasonableness in the constitutional analysis 
as well

Similarly, in Boston Chapter, NAACP, v. Beecher, 879 F.2d at 
978, the First Circuit indicated a belief that Weber implicitly defines



9a

No. 80-1837 Bratton, et al. v. City of Detroit ■ et ati Q

v. Young, supra; Valentine v. Smith, supra; United States v. 
City of Miami, Florida, supra.

The Supreme Court has not provided the kind of guidance 
in the constitutional context that W eber affords under Title 
VH. Instead, the Court has issued a series of opinions in the 
course of two significant cases on this issue, Regents of Uni­
versity of C alifornia v. B akke, supra, and FuUUove v. Klutz- 
w ok, supra. The only clear consensus to be garnered from 
these various statements is that in any affirmative action pro­
gram (1 ) some governmental interest must be served, and
(2 ) the program must somehow be directed toward the 
achievement of that objective. Beyond this, however, there 
appears to be no agreement on the nature of the governmental 
interest which must be at stake, on the finding necessary to 
establish the presence of that interest, see,V alentine v. Smith, 
supra, 654 F.2d  at 509 n.11 and accompanying text, nor on 
the standard under which the method employed to achieve 
that interest is to be reviewed. Id . at n.12.2’

In Young, this Court found that the Brennan-W hite-M ar- 
shafl-Blackmun opinion in B akke23 offered the most reason- * 21

ftua*VTLSSibie remedies “  4110 § 1983 context as wen as that under
Our discussion explicitly maintains flexibility in the determina- 

r ?D wfaf th0r aRJr affirmative action plan meets a constitutional 
requirement of reasonableness. In addition, our review of this par- 

h®f =onT*nc?d ^ a t it would be permissible even under 
me pretest of standards. As such, we need not, nor do we pbnna* 
to, adopt the Weber standards as determinative in all cases requiring 
a Fourteenth Amendment or § 1983 analysis.

21 After attempting to discern a standard to be applied to affirma­
tive action plans, the Fifth Circuit noted:

We frankly admit that we are not entirely sure what to make 
of the various B akke  opinions. In over one hundred and fifty 
fi?®*63* U n i t e d  States Reports, the Justices have told us mainly 
that they have agreed to disagree.

United States v. City o f Miami, 814 F.2d 1322 ( 5th Cir. 1980) We 
c°UTt’s subsequent decision in FuUUove has 

significantly clarified the Supreme Court’s stance on this issue.

3 I'0te. the Court’s opinion in B akke  where he 
found that though affirmative action plans may not be per se illegal,



10a

able guidance for a resolution of these constitutional issues.*3 
Though Young was decided in die interim between B akke 
and FuUUove, it does not appear that FuUUove requires a 
retreat from our earlier position. FuUUove is a plurality de­
cision with little precedential value.*® It also addressed 
the comtitutionality of affirmative action in a materially 
distinguishable context23 In addition, the concurring
opinion authored by Justice Marshall in FuUUove clearly 
reaffirms the analysis generally relied upon in the initial for­
mulation of this Circuit's approach to affirmative action. Ab­
sent an opinion joined by a majority of the Supreme Court, 
or an an banc decision of this Court, we are unpersuaded that 
tfa© standard in Young is no longer the law of this C ircuit**

10 Bratton, et al. v. City of Detroit, at o l  No. 80-1837

the B o a r d  of Hegents was not a competent body t o  make the de- 
tmmnation, tix&t prior discrimination in society as a whole justified 

® affirmative action within the operations of the University 
Justice Brennan concurring in part and dissenting in part, in an 
opinion joined by Justices White, Marshall andBlackm u-J would 
have found the University's plan valid in aU respects. The other 
four Justices never reacted the constitutional issue, concurring in 
Justice PoweU s conclusion that the Board of Hegents was not a 
competent body to condud© that such a plan was appropriate

M Accord, Valentine v. Smith, 654 F.2d 503 ( 8th Cir. 1980): United 
States v. City o f Miami, Fla., supra at note 19.

. “  S€f? E W o r l d  Airlines v. Hardison, 432 U.& 83, 73 n.8 (1977) 
409 U:a  188, 192 (1972) (judgment entered 

57 an equally divided court is not entitled to precedential weight) ■ 
Berlin v. F. C. Publications, 329 F.2d 541 (2d Cir. 1964) (affirmance 

?ii,Vlded C0U,r£ “ ..between the parties, conclusive deter- 
mmarion, but the principles of law involved, having not gained the 

/  “ fjo n ty  of the court, prevents the case from being 
cases); But see Marks v. United States, 430 U.S. 

(bol du^u of fragmented court may be viewed as that 
position taken by those members who concurred in the judgment 
on the narrowest grounds).

Fuiliione, the Court was faced with determining whether a 
congressional decision to implement a ten percent set-aside in favor 
erf minority contactors for public works contracts was constitutional 

.if311!  “  ■ dsstl? ci  trom  the employment context is mani­
fested by the decision of the court, authored by Chief Justice Burger 
and joined by Justice White Tte Court refused to place the FuUUove 

P f  “ y onf the B akke  standards, finding simply that
E ?? lcuiar Powel, UBder Section 5 of the Fourteenth Amendment to institute such a plan.

** Given the existence of an established precedent in this Circuit,



11a

Hie standard to be applied in this case, then, is dearly set 
out in the pages of Judge Lively’s opinion in Young,37 At the 
outset, we note that the standard is one which does apply 
“strict scrutiny”’. The review under the Fourteenth Amend- 
ment should be “strict—not ‘strict in theory and fatal in fact;’ 
because it is stigma that causes fatality—but strict and search- 
mg nonetheless.” Regents o f University o f C alifornia v. 
B akke, 438 U.S. at 361-62. However, as noted in Young, in 
cases involving discrimination against those not traditionally 
discriminated against, “strict scrutiny” takes on a more precise 
meaning:

[A] case involving a claim of discrimination against mem­
bers of the white majority is not a simple mirror image 
of a case involving claims of discrimination against mi­
norities. One analysis is required when those for whose 
benefit the Constitution was amended or a statute en­
acted claim discrimination. A different analysis must 
be made when the claimants are not members of a class 
historically subjected to discrimination. When claims are 
brought by members of a jptrap formerly subjected to dis­
crimination the case moves with the grain of the Con­
stitution and rational policy. A suit which seeks to 
prevent public action designed to alleviate the effects of 
past discrimination moves against the grain . . . .

608 F.2d at 69T.28 Bearing this general standard in mind,

we find it ill advised to attempt to dissect the positions taken in this 
and similar contexts by the various Justices on the Court and to 
then predict exactly which form of constitutional analysis may win 
the approval of a majority. The dissent’s formulation of a version 
of the constitutional standard, purportedly based on an overall 
interpretation of the Supreme Court’s various nondefinitive state­
ments on the issue, is unnecessary and inappropriate in light of 
Young.

See concurring opinion of Judge Celebrezze herein, infra at 42.
. 28 Valentine v. Smith, supra at note 21, the Eighth Circuit 

simply denned the appropriate degree of scrutiny as a “searching 
analysis.’’' 654 F.2d at 509. Whatever the appropriate semantics, we 
recognize that though we are dealing with a unique form of con­
stitutional analysis commanding somewhat unique considerations, it 
is a constitutional issue nonetheless and must be given extensive and 
careful consideration.

No.-8^1837 Bratton, et al. v. City of Detroit, et al. 11



12a

the first stage in our approach to affirmative action programs 
entails an analysis of the need for such remedial measures— 
Le.s with the presence of a governmental interest in their 
implementation. It is uncontested that the government has 
a  significant interest in ameliorating the disabling effects of 
identified discrimination. FuUUove v. K hdzm ck, 448 U.S. at 
487 (opinion of Justice Powell, concurring). “The existence 
of illegal discrimination justifies the imposition of a remedy 
that will make persons whole for injuries suffered on account 
of unlawful . . . discrimination. A lberm arle Paper Co. v. 
M oody 422 U.S. 405, 418 (1975)." Id.

A direct showing of past intentional discrimination is not 
required to establish the existence of this interest, however. 
It is sufficient if findings are made by a body with the com­
petence to act in tins area2® and a review of those findings 
wreals “a. sound basis for concluding that minority under­
representation is substantial and chronic, and that the handi­
cap of past discrimination is impeding access [and promotion] 
o£-minorities." D etroit P olice O fficers A ssociation v. Young, 
008 F.2d at 694 ( quoting Bakke, 438 U.S. at 382).

One®1 the governmental interest in some remedial action is 
thus established,3® we must proceed to determine whether

12 Bratton, et aL v. City of Detroit, et aL No. 80^1837

2® We recognize that this element was not a part of the guidelines 
affirmative action laid out in Justice Brennan's opinion in 

Bakke. Rather, this requirement arises out of Justice Powell’s 
opinion in that case. Though Judge Lively's opinion does specifically 
choose to follow the Brennan-White-Marshall-Blaekmun aproach, 
it also appears to require some finding by an appropriate body, 
one competent in the area. As such, we have similarly addressed the 
issue of appropriate findings while adopting Justice Brennan’s guide­
lines for purposes of all subsequent analysis. 30 * *

30 We note that in Young, Judge Lively specifically observed that
the city's assertion that the affirmative action program was necessary
to satisfy its operational need for improved law enforcement was a 
substantial justification for the adoption of such a plan. Accordingly, 
the case was remanded for a determination of whether the govern­
mental interest in the plan could be justified on either the basis of 
the need for redress or on the basis of the department’s operational 

j needs. Given our resolution of the redress issue and our consider- 
| ation of the department’s discrimination against the general popu­

lation of the City of Detroit within the context of the need for



13a

the remedial measures employed axe reasonable. This includes 
an examination of whether any discrete group or individual 
is stigmatized by the program and whether racial classifications 
have been reasonably33 * 35 used in light of the program’s objec­
tives. Regents of the University of Californio, v. Bakke, 438  
U.S. at 372-76; Fullilove v. Kiutznick, 448 U.S. at 518-19 
If the affirmative action plan satisfies these criteria, it does 
not violate the equal protection clause of the Fourteenth 
Amendment Detroit Police Officers Association v. Young, 
608 F.2d at 694. Accord United States v. City of Miami, 
Florida, 614 F.2d at 1338.

Before proceeding to analyze the facts before us in light 
of the standards detailed above, we note that, although we 
have drawn the distinction between a Title V II analysis and 
that to be employed when reviewing in light of the Four­
teenth Amendment, and have indicated our present unwilling­
ness to employ only the W eber standards in the constitu­
tional context, we axe still able to combine the two analyses 
for purposes of a resolution of this case. W e find that to the 
extent that the constitutional standard may be more exacting 
than that employed in W eber, the Title VII challenge to the 
Detroit Police plan is necessarily subsumed into that mad© 
here under the Fourteenth Amendment; what is valid under 
the latter will certainly pass muster under Title VII.33

redress, we find it unnecessary to address the validity of the oper- jj 
ational needs defense to affirmative action in this context See also I 
Boston Chapter, NAACP v. Beecher, supra at note 19, and VanAken 
v. Young, supra at note 8, for further discussions regarding the 
validity of an operational needs argument

_31 What is or is not a “reasonable” use of race will vary with the 
circumstances surrounding the need for, urgency and operation of 
a given plan. The factors to be weighed in making this determina­
tion are addressed more fully below in our discussion of the validity 
of the Detroit plan.

33 At this stage, we note that were we to find that some other, 
stricter, standard were required or appropriate, for whatever reason, 
that _ we would still find this plan constitutionally valid. As in
Fullilove, this program is acceptable under any of the “formulas of
analysis articulated in such cases as University of California Board 
o f Regents v. Bakke, 438 U.S. 265 (1978).” 448 U.S. at 492,

No. 80-1837 Bratton, et aL v. City of Detroit, et at* 13



14a

m
Though the appellants acknowledge that the guidelines we 

detail here are controlling, they attack this particular plan’s 
ability to fit within them. They claim that the 50/50 promo­
tion program was adopted in 1974 despite the fact that there 
was no basis for concluding that minority underrepresentation 
at the lieutenant level was substantial or, more importantly, 
that minority access to that rank was in any way impeded 
by the effects of prior discrimination. In fact, it is alleged 
that, post-1973, the written examinations and other promo­
tional criteria actually favored minority candidates. Es­
sentially, the appellants claim that the need for redress at 
this level and time was simply nonexistent. Absent a redress 
justification, and in the face of what the appellants deem 
to be a specious operational needs argument, they contend 
that there is simply no significant governmental interest to be 
served by the imposition of any sergeant-to-lieutenant affirma­
tive action plan.

Additionally, the appellants argue that, assuming arguendo 
that some affirmative action was required, the promotion 
quota was not sufficiently tailored to the achievement of the 
objective of the remedy to fall within the permissible bounds 
of either Title VH or the Fourteenth Amendment

'A . Governmental Interest in Affirmative Action

In Young, this Court held that the Board of Police Commis­
sioners in Detroit was competent to make findings regarding 
the existence and effect of prior discrimination on the part of 
the Police Department. We reaffirm that decision, noting 
that that body’s competence encompasses findings which re­
late to hiring practices, interdepartmental promotions and the 
department’s overall operations as they affect the populace 
of Detroit.*3 33

14 Bratton, et aL v. City of Detroit, et d . No. 80-1837;

33 The Board of Police Commissioners in Detroit has extremely



15a

Alter conducting formal administrative hearings, the Board 
of Police Commissioners found extensive past racial discrimi­
nation in all three of the areas detailed above. Those admin­
istrative findings are supported both by our earlier findings 
in Young. 808 F .2d  at 886-94, and the de novo findings of the 
district court in the case at bar. Baker v. City of Detroit, 
483 F.Stipp. 930, 940-958 (E .D . Mich. 1979).

In Young, we discussed the nature of the evidence neces­
sary to justify a finding of prior overt discrimination. 608 F.2d  
at 093. W here consistent practices have resulted in a signifi­
cant disparate impact among races, the discriminatory intent 
may be established by any evidence which logically supports 
the inference that state action or policies were adopted for 
invidious purposes. Id. Such “logical” evidence includes the 
statistics of racial impact,'34 the historical background of the 
decisions which led to such an impact, the contemporaneous 
statements of the members of the decision-making body, and 
the presence of actions from which a disparate im pact is * 4 5

No. 80-1837 Bratton, et d . v. City o f Detroit, et aL IS

broad authority over the operation of the Detroit police department 
Under the Charter of the City of Detroit adopted in 1974, the Board 
of Police'Commissioners is appointed by the Mayor with the consent 
of tee City Council. The Board has the power to: (1) establish
policies, rules _ and regulations in consultation with the chief of 
police; (2) review and approve the departmental budget; (3) receive 
and resolve complaints about the operation of the police department;
(4) act as final reviewing authority over employee discipline; and
(5) subpoena witnesses, administer oaths, take testimony and require 
the production of evidence. The Board reports annually to the 
Mayor, the City Council and the public regarding the department's 
activities during the prior year and its future plans.

The Board of Regents may have had similar authority with regard 
to the operation of the University of California But there is never­
theless a distinguishing characteristic. The university's affirmative 
action program was aimed at redressing past societal discrimination, 
not discrimination by the university. It was simply assessing the 
performance of society generally, not its own. performance. Justice 
Powell held that the regents’ educational authority did not qualify 
them to make findings about discrimination in society generally. His 
theory was that the Board of Regents had no greater knowledge of 
societal discrimination and no greater interest, incentive or need 
to make accurate and objective findings on discrimination in general 
than any other group, agency or individual. The record, such s?



16a

foreseeable. I d c f .  Columbus Board of Education v. Penick,
443 U.S. 449, 99 S.Ct. 2941, 61 L.Ed. 666 (1979).

The record is replete with evidence to support the district 
court’s conclusion that the Board of Police Commissioners was 
correct in finding that the D etroit Police Department had 
employed a consistent, overt policy of intentional discrimi­
nation against blacks in all phases of its operations. Judge 
Keith conducted a lengthy trial in this case and made 
comprehensive written findings of past discrimination dating 
as far back as the city’s first race riot in 1943. Most 
of this historical data stands undisputed.

In 1950 when the D etroit population was 16 percent black, 
less than 2.5 percent of the police force was black (96  black 
and 3,565 white officers) and less than one percent of the 
sergeants and lieutenants were black (3  black sergeants 
out of 347 and one black lieutenant of 168 total). At the time 
of the severe race riot in 1967, the city was forty percent 
black with a police force that was from four to six percent 
black, only a minor fraction of which were members of the 
command structure. By 1974 when the challenged affirmative 
acton  plan was initiated, the black population had again in­
creased significantly, yet the department remained 17.2 per­
cent black overall and less than five percent of the lieuten­
ants were black (11 black and 219 white lieutenants) .3S

16. Bratton, et d . v. City of Detroit, et a l,. No. 80-1837

them was in Bakke, did not contain an acknowledgement of the 
existence of discnimnation in medical admissions policies, past or 
present. The record here is replete with acknowledgements and 
findings of discrimination by and within the police department itself.

_ 34 See e.g., International Brotherhood of Teamsters v. United 
300*41977) U'S' 324, 337 n"17, 339-40 fi-20’ 97 S.Ct. 1843, 52 L.Ed.2d 33

33 Updated statistics (submitted by order of the court) on the 
racial composition of the various ranks of the department still show 
a marked disparity between relative representation of blacks and



17a

There is n© doubt that the inference of intentional dis­
crimination which arises from the severe statistical disparity 
is an accurate one. The district court has itemized in detail 
die evidence of intentional discrimination. For example, 
prior to the 1960*s, squad cars and patrol beats were clearly 
segregated. Blacks and whites were not assigned to ride 
together, nor were blacks ever assigned to patrol white areas. 
When initial tentative efforts were made to integrate, some 
squad cars, the white officers struck and the prior policy 
was reinstituted in fuE force. Numerous instances of dis­
criminatory practices in hiring, promotion, the ability to trans­
fer from a patrol position to a plain clothes one and the day- 
to-day treatm ent of black officers, evidences the systematic 
exclusion of blacks from any meaningful role on die Detroit 
police force. No sufficient explanation for the severe under­
representation of blacks at all levels, other than tins manifest 
systematic exclusion, has been proffered. See D etroit Police 
O fficers Association  v. Young, 808 F.2d  at 687.

The history of this discrimination is corroborated by nu­
merous independent studies made in response to the perceived 
problems within, and caused by the D etroit police force. 
These include, inter alia, reports of the Michigan Civil Rights

No.- 80-1837 Bratton, et si. v. City of Detroit, et ai, 17

whites and between the percentage of blacks in the city and the 
police ranks.

Defawit Police Department — rtnpiai Breakdown

kleutesmat Sergeant Police Officer total
r White Black Whit® White Black WUte Black

i977j 199 (BOH) 2 3  d m ) 1 0 2 6  (9 1 3 0 10 1  (931) 2 9 4 7  (  7 3 3 0 1 0 7 5  (2J31) 4 2 1 5  ( 7 8 * ) 120a ( 2 2 * ;

W 1 6 1  (9031) 1 8  (1051) 9 7 7  (8634) [ l 5 4  (1431) 2 6 7 7  (7331) 9 7 8  (25!t) 3 8 5 8  ( 7 7 * ) 1165 ( 2 3 * :

1 ?7 7 1 7 6  ( 7651) 51 (2251) 8 7 1  (8531) 1 4 8  (1531) 2 7 7 5  (6351) 1 6 8 5  (3 0 * ) 3 8 6 6  ( 6 7 * ) 1905 ( 3 3 * :

1 ? 7 8 1 5 7  (  7751) 4 7  (2331) 7 9 9  (8531) 1 4 6  ( 1 » ; 2 6 7 3  (6151) 1 7 1 9  (3 9 * ! 3 6 7 0  ( 6 5 * ) 19 3 6  ( 3 5 * :

1979 1 4 9  (7751) 4 4  (2 3 5 0 7 2 5  (8351) 1 4 4  (1 7 3 i: 2 4 6 7  (6451) 1 3 9 4  (3 6 * ) 3 3 7 4  ( 6 8 * ) 16 0 4  ( 3 2 * :

1980 191 (7351) 5 6  (2751) 7 1 6  (8031) 1 7 5  (203 i: 2 1 6 6  (7351) 8 0 5  (2 7 * ) 3 0 7 0  ( 7 4 * ) 1061 ( 2 6 *

54. (2731) 6 6 0  (7931) 1 7 3  ( 2 1 * ; 2 0 7 4  ( 7151) 8 6 0  ( 2 9 * ; 291-3 ( 7 2 * ) 1111 ( 2 8 * .



18a

Commission, the 1908 report of the National Advisory Coiq- 
mission on Civil Disorders, and the 1907. report of the Presi­
dent’s Crime Commission. These and others are analyzed in 
foil in the district court’s historical analysis.

The record justifies the district court’s finding that while 
l i e  poB.ce department was discriminating against blacks in 
employment, a white police department was discriminating 
against black citizens on the street Two massive uprisings, 
on® in 1943 and another in 1907, resulted directly from dis­
criminatory treatment of black citizens by white police officers. 
Justice Thurgood Marshall in his report on the 1943 Detroit 
uprising, written while a nationally known civil rights lawyer 
(quoted by the district court, 483 F.Supp. 940-41), indicates 
that the “anti-Negro attitude of many members of the force 
helped to make l ie  riot inevitable.” This and Justice Mar­
shalls other findings axe manifest in the mass of evidence 
adduced at the trial of this case. In the 1967 uprising, large 
sections of the city were burned and many deaths, injuries 
and arrests were reported-all affecting blacks and higHr areas 
in a significantly disproportionate manner. The record before 
this Court also supports the conclusion of John Hershey in 
his study entitled, T he Algiers M otel Incident, p. 36 (19® ) 
that a material cause of the 1967 riot was “unequal justice," 
“the experience of the black populous . . with the cop in the 
street" W® find that Judge Keith’s findings and conclusions 
in reviewing the findings of the Police Board regarding past 
discrimination are correct in all material respects.

In the face of this evidence, the appellants continue to 
maintain that affirmative action, though necessary at some 
level in the police force, was unjustifiable in the sergeant-to- 
lieutenant promotion stage. The argument centers on the fact 
that after 1968, and up until the time of this litigation, the 
department did embark upon a concentrated program of af­
firmative action. They contend that the recruiting efforts in 
the early 1970s, the impact of the imposition of a 1976 in-

18 Bratton, et aL v. City of Detroit, et oL No. 80-1837



19a

crease in the post-1974 hiring quota and the effect of- the 
promotion quota for sergeants have ebmmated any under­
representation of minorities winch can be classified as “sub­
stantial and chronic.” The second element of this argument 
is based on appellants’ claim that the rise in potential black 
candidates for lieutenant (due to the increases in the lower 
levels) and the changes in the promotion guidelines have vir­
tually giver* blacks equal, merit-based access to the lieutenant 
ranks.

These arguments misconstrue the nature of this element of 
our inquiry. The district judge was faced with a determina­
tion of whether the Board’s decision to adopt a voluntary 
affirmative action plan in 1974 was constitutionally permis­
sible. There is no doubt that as- of 1974 there was severe 
underrepresentation of blacks in the lieutenant corps, and 
that the post-1971 recruiting policies had not worked any 
significant change in that reality. We also have no doubt 
that that mdetrepresentation was caused not solely by lower- 
level discriminatory practices, but by discrimination in the 
specific promotion process designed for lieutenants as well. 
We will not reiterate the thorough analysis of the promotional 
model which the district court undertook. See B aker v. City 
o f D etroit, 438 F.Supp. at 965-979. We simply note that we 
are satisfied that the district court’s finding that blacks had 
been illegally denied access to these promotions by the work­
ing of the promotion system itself is correct34

No. 80-1837 Bratton, et d . v. City of Detroit, et aL 19

M There is extensive support in the record for these findings. For 
years, the department employed IQ and aptitude tests which have 
long been recognized as having an impermissible adverse impact on 
minorities. In fact, the tests used by the department early on were 
specifically prohibited by the Uniform Guidelines on Employee Selec­
tion Procedures adopted by the EEOC, 29 C.F.R. § 1607.14c (1) for 
any selection which is to be job related. Testimony adduced at 
trial indicated that some of those administering the tests had “no 
doubt” that the promotional exams had, at times, been discriminatory. 
In addition, certain black officers also expressed a conviction that 
their subjectively set service ratings reflected the discriminatory 
bent of their supervisors. Finally, the statistical data itself raises 
an inference in support of the district court’s conclusions in this 
regard.



20a

W e find, therefore, that the contention that the need for 
redress was nonexistent at the stage at which the appellants 
were adversely affected by it is without m erit

B . Reasonableness of the Program

W e must now proceed to the second step of our constitu­
tional analysis: whether the remedy adopted in response to 
the perceived governmental interest was sufficiently reasonable 
in light of those objectives. As noted previously, this entails 
a determination of whether the white police officers were 
unduly stigmatized by the program and whether the particular 
program applies the use of racial classifications reasonably.

1. Attachment of a Stigma

W hether an undue stigma results from an affirmative action 
plan is a difficult issue. Even once the need for some redress 
is established in a given case, the Supreme Court has cau­
tioned that due care must be taken to insure that those who 
claim to be disadvantaged by a plan, its beneficiaries, or both, 
are not unduly stigmatized by an improperly drawn or imple­
mented affirmative action program. While this is true, how­
ever, remedial race-conscious programs under affirmative ac­
tion plans must not be held hostage by those who claim to 
be adversely impacted unless they can demonstrate a constitu­
tionally impermissible stigma. Unless this is required, the 
legacy of racial discrimination would never be remedied 
Racial classifications which favor minorities do not per se 
result in such a stigma. As Justice Blackmun observed in his 
Bakke opinion, “[i]n order to get beyond racism we must first 
take race into account . . . and in order to treat some persons 
equally we must first treat them differently. W e cannot—we 
dare not — let the Equal Protection Clause perpetuate racial 
supremacy.” 438 U.S. at 407. In the context we address to­
day, differential treatm ent is neither constitutionally offensive

20 Bratton, et al. v. City of Detroit, et d . No. 80-1837



21a

not unduly stigmatizing and we refuse to invalidate the Board 
program on drat basis.

First, though undue stigma must be cautiously guarded 
against, a plan designed to remedy the effects of past dis­
crimination is not invalid merely because some individuals not 
in any way culpable with respect to past discriminatory acts 
must bear the brunt of the racial preference. Valentine v. 
Smith, 654 F.2d  at 511. "W hen effectuating a  limited and 
properly-tailored remedy to cure the effects of prior discrimi­
nation, such a ‘sharing the burden’ by innocent parties is not 
impermissible.” FidlUooe v. Slutznick, 448 U.S, at 484 ( opinion 
of Chief Justice B urger).

This case is “not a simple mirror image of a case involving 
<4arms of discrimination against minorities.” Detroit Police 
Officers Association v. Young, 608 F .2d  at 697,3y W e are 
dealing with a white majority which has traditionally bene­
fited from the prior systematic discriminatory practices which 
have given rise to the need for the kind of affirmative action 
program the D etroit Police Board implemented. The self­
esteem of whites as a group is not generally endangered by 
attempting to remedy past acts militating in their favor, the 
situation only arises in the first instance because of their social 
dominance.3® The purpose of this program is to aid blacks, it 
is not aimed at excluding whites—-the fact that whites have 
equal access to the lieutenant ranks and that the plan is only 
temporary clearly support this conclusion. In such instances, 
the white majority is simply not being subjected to what 
amounts to a constitutionally invidious stigma.

Second, we believe that where those hired or promoted by 
operation of affirmative action axe qualified for the position 
in which they are placed, no constitutionally impermissible * 38

3* See text, supra at page 7.
38 See Nagel, Thomas, “Equal Treatment and Compensatory Dis­

crimination,” Equality and Preferential Treatment, Eds. Cohen, Nagel, 
Scanlon (1977) pp. 3-18.

No. 80-1837 Bratton, et d . v. City of Detroit, et aL 21



22a

stigma attaches. V alentine v. Smith, supra. In Smith, the 
Eighth Circuit considered a complaint instituted by a white 
applicant for a teaching position at Arkansas State University. 
The record specifically established that despite receiving the 
highest of the many recommendations from the screening 
committee, Ms. Valentine was not hired by the University. 
The decision was made to hire a black educator in her stead. 
There is no doubt fia t that decision was “substantially moti­
vated by a race-conscious choice by ASU to implement its 
affirmative action plan.” 854 F.2d at 507, The court concluded 
that as long as the black candidate was qualified to fill the 
position, as the facts in the record established she was, there 
would be no stigma to any of the parties Involved. The court 
noted that the majority group is rarely, if ever, stigmatized. 
H is  was deemed to be particularly true where the party or 
parties otherwise filling the position were qualified, thus guar­
anteeing that no negative inference could arise regarding the 
quality of the credentials of those passed over. Similarly, 
where the beneficiary of the plan is qualified, there can be 
no stigma caused by a perception that they would somehow 
be undeserving. Based on this reasoning, the court concluded:

Where the applicant is qualified, the risk of stigma is 
considerably less because presumably the person can 
perform the task adequately. The evidence in this case 
shows not only that Georgia Mitchell [the black appli­
cant] was fully qualified for the job but also she per­
formed very well as a teacher. We cannot invalidate 
ASU’s affirmative action plan, or its application to the 
facts here, on the supposition that someone might be 
stigmatized.

I d  at 511.

We find this reasoning apposite to the situation before us. 
At trial, the plaintiffs argued that they and the department 
were harmed by the new promotion guidelines. They con­
tended that they had been passed over by candidates who

22 Bratton, s i d . v. City of Detroit, et d . No. 80-1837



23a

were manifestly less qualified for the rank of lieutenant, H e  
clear implication of their arguments is that, after 1974, A© 
quality of the officers at this level was somehow less than it 
could or should have been. The district court dedicated a 
large portion of its opinion to the merits of this argument. 
Judge Keith determined that the black officers who were 
promoted out of sequence were as substantially equally quali­
fied as the white officers promoted in strict rank order. There 
is extensive support in the record for this conclusion.3* * At 
minimum, we are convinced by the record evidence that, 
from 1974 to date, only weU^qualified blacks were promoted 
to the lieutenant corps.40 In such instances we find that no 
stigma of a constitutional magnitu.de attaches to either those 
claiming to be adversely impacted by the plan or its bene­
ficiaries.

We recognize that there has been, and continues to be, a 
misperception regarding the operation of affirmative action. 
We have no doubt that, at times, some persons may have 
been placed in positions for which they were unqualified in 
an effort to discredit affirmative action. Whether these hirings 
or promotions have occurred in fact, they have never been 
and would not now be justifiable under the law as it relates 
to affirmative action. If a party is not qualified for a position 
in the first instance, affirmative action considerations do 
not come into play.

2. Propriety of the 50/50 Racial. Classification

The use of the 50/50 promotional preference is to be judged 
against a “test of reasonableness.” Detroit Police Officers As­
sociation v. Young, 608 F.2d at 694. See also Boston Chapter, 
NAACP v. Beecher, 679 F.2d at 977; U.S. v. City of Miami,

No, 80-1837 Bratton, et d . v. City of Detroit, et a l  23

W B aker v. City of Detroit, 483 F.Supp. at 970-79.
*0 U. at 979.



24a

Florida, 614 F.2d at 1338. This test encompasses a variety of 
considerations which may vary given the nature of the prefer­
ence- plan to be considered and the circumstances surround­
ing its implementation. Like the Supreme Court, we do not 
now attempt to define what will guarantee a finding of rea­
sonableness for all purposes. Bather, we address those factors 
which lead us to conclude that this plan is reasonable in light 
of what the record reveals about the Detroit Police Depart­
m ent We find that (1 ) the affirmative action plan is "sub­
stantially related” to the objective of remediation of prior 
discrimination, Detroit Police Officers Association v. Young,. 
608 F.2d 696, (2) the use of racial classifications reflects the 
only legitimate method for achieving those objectives in light 
of the urgent need for a remedy and the practical limitations 
placed on the effective use of other means, id., (3 ) the plan 
is temporary in nature, scheduled to endure only so long as 
Is necessary to achieve its legitimate goals, Valentine v. Smith, 
654 F.2d at 510, and (4) the plan does not otherwise “un­
necessarily trammeF the interests of white candidates for 
promotion. Detroit Police Officers Association v. Young, TO  
F.2d 686. Though no one of these characteristics is determi­
native, taken as a whole they justify a conclusion that this 
particular plan is within the bounds of what is constitutionally 
reasonable.

The Board of Police Commissioners in 1974, the district 
court in the present case and this Court in Young, found three 
identifiable forms of injury to the black citizens of Detroit aris­
ing from past employment discrimination in the police depart­
ment First, in 1974 there were not as many black officers in 
various positions in the department as there would have been 
in the absence of discrimination. Second, during the major 
period of discrimination—roughly a twenty-year period from 
the end of World War II to the mid-1960s—there were fewer; 
black officers than there otherwise would have been. Third, 
as a consequence of employment discrimination, black citizens

24. Bratton, et d . v. City of Detroit, et aL No. 80-1837



25a

suffered harrassment and indignities at the hands of a white 
police force.

In 1974, the chief legislative body of Detroit adopted for 
the first time the requirement that city employees, including 
police officers, live within the city limits. The Board of Police 
Commissioners estimated that in 1974-75 the population of 
the city was approximately fifty percent black.41 It did not 
find in 1974 that the lieutenant corps would be exactly fifty 
percent black in the absence of discrimination. Rather, it 
found that in the absence of discrimination, the proportion 
of black lieutenants would be considerably higher than it 
was and in time would be approaching the fifty percent mark. 
The Board concluded that a 50/50 hiring and promotion ratio 
would provide a reasonable and even-handed remedy in view 
of all of the injuries suffered by the black citizens of Detroit, 
the fact that at the time (1973-74) only five percent of the 
lieutenants were black, and the fact that die black population 
of Detroit was likely to increase as a percentage of the whole.

The Board did not employ an economic or a statistical expert 
in 1974-75 to determine the relevant labor markets during the 
period of discrimination. It did not try to determine the pre­
cise number of lieutenants who would have been hired in the 
absence of discrimination. It simply concluded that most 
police officers in the past had come from within the city and 
that the city was now approximately -fifty percent black.

In order to rebut the Board’s findings and show reverse dis­
crimination, the plaintiffs contended at trial that there was 
no need for redress because there was no discrimination in 
employment in the police department. In order to establish 
this position, the plaintiffs also contended that the relevant 
labor market figures were the figures for the Detroit metro-

No. 80-1837 Bratton, et al. v. City of D etrot, et dL 25

Although it is impossible to determine the exact racial charac­
teristics of Detroit’s population in 1974-75, the 1S80 census shows 
that Detroit’s black population was 63 percent The figure for 1970



26a

politan area, figures which would justify a much lower per­
centage of blacks in the police department than the figures 
for the City of Detroit. In light of the city’s evidence con­
cerning discrimination, the statistical evidence concerning 
percentages in the city population and the-source of the de­
partment’s labor pool, and our 1979 opinion in Young, the 
plaintiffs shifted grounds on appeal The appellants no longer 
contend that there had been no prior discrimination, nor that 
the metropolitan area statistics are controlling, Instead, they 
contend that as of 1974 there was no need for redress at the 
lieutenant level and that, even if there were, the fifty percent 
ratio was, in reality, designed to do more than redress an 
identifiable wrong, that it was impermissibly aimed at achiev­
ing a racial balance.

The first argument has been dealt with in detail above. 
The second rests on the appellants’ contention that the 50/50 
promotion policy exceeds that necessary to offset any iden­
tifiable prior discrimination, They claim that a 50/50 ratio 
and a fifty percent end goal is not justifiable since their data 
reveals that there is no merit to the argument that the lieu­
tenant ranks would have been fifty percent black by 1974 ab­
sent past discriminatory practices.42 The data to which the

28 Bratton, et ed. v. City of Detroit, et al. No. 80-1837

w^s approximately 43 percent Thus the Board’s estimate of Detroit’s 
black population in 1974 was not unreasonable.

^Plaintiffs argument in this respect is as follows:
That the 50/50 quota far exceeds its purported remedial nature 
is also confirmed by comparing the fifty percent goal of the 
quota to the relevant labor market data 1 . . .  In 1973, Mr. 
Feehter determined that the relevant labor market was 38.4 
percent black. This represents a twelve point difference from
the fifty percent quota imposed by the City the following year 
i v *  1  on a. °  v

Moreover, the 38.4 percent non-white labor pool for 1973 is not 
the relevant labor pool for the rank of lieutenant The record 
shows that virtually every person promoted to the rank of 
lieutenant had a minimum of six years with the Department 
Therefore, one must go back at least six years in time in order 
to determine the relevant labor market for lieutenants. Ac-



27a

appellants refer is that of their own statistical expert, Mr. 
Akn Fechter,

Taking mto account the particular qualifications necessary 
for entry into the police department, Mr. Fechter calculated 
the relevant labor market for new hires between 1945 and 
1973. The following table summarizes his testimony con­
cerning the black-white share of that market as compared to 
the black-white population in the department:

No. 80-1837 Bratton, et al. v. City of Detroit, et aL 27

cordingly, as of 1974 even the meat liberal estimate of the 
relevant labor market for lieutenants would be the 1968 non­
white labor pool of thirty percent [App. 1760]. In other words, 
given the minimum period of time it takes for one to progress 
from the entry level ts the rank of lieutenant, it is totally 
inaccurate to look at the relevant labor market figure for 
blacks at the entry level . . . .
The City has consistently ignored these distinctions and con­
tinues to insist that the lieutenants ranis would be fifty per­
cent black absent past discrimination. When the District Court 
remanded this case to the Board of Police Commissioners with 
directions to formulate a termination date, the Chief of Police 
again recommended that the quota be continued until the lieu­
tenants ranks were fifty percent black. Notwithstanding the 
record evidence to the contrary, the Chief informed the Board 
of Police Commissioners that the fifty percent end-goal was 
appropriate because the relevant labor market was approxi­
mately fifty percent black in 1974 . . . .
Mr. Fechteris method of linear interpolation . . . shows that 
the non-white labor pool would not be fifty percent black 
until at least 1989. But again, this is the relevant labor pool 
for entry level-—not for lieutenants. Adding the minimum of six 
years it takes to become a lieutenant, the relevant non-white 
labor pool for lieutenants would not reach fifty percent until 
1986.
It is therefore clear that there is no merit whatsoever to the 
argument that the lieutenants ranks would have been fifty per­
cent black in 1974 absent past discrimination. As has been 
demonstrated, equity was achieved at the lieutenants ranks in 
April of 1976. The 50/50 quota is therefore excessive and un­
reasonable

Plaintiffs’ Reply Brief filed March 12, 1982, pp, 8-10.



28a

28 Bratton, et al. v. City of Detroit, et sL No. 80-183?

Comparison, R ada! Composition of Hires and Labor Pool, 
1945-1978

Year Labor Pool Labor Pool Black Hires Difference
(Percent (Total

Nonwhite) Hires)
1945 13.8 301
1946 1 4 4 304
1947 15.1 577
1948 15.7 288
1949 16.3 414
1950 17.0 313
1951 17.7 258
1952 18.3 328-
1953 18.9 189
1954 19.6 369
1955 20.2 327
1956 £0.9 187
1957 21.5 158
1958 2Z2 14
1959 22.8 116
1960 23.5 90
1961 25.1 192
1962 25.7 278
1963 28.8 179
1964 29.9 141
1965 31.5 171
1966 33.1 205
1967 fM-8 323
1968 1 4 6 1  \ 519
1969 I 42.9 5 561
1970 I 39.5 | 495
1971 40.5 | 656
1972 47.9 ( 618
1973 4 3 .0 / 491

* Statistically significant from

(Estimated / Actual)

42 5 37*
44 7 37®
87 17 70*
48 9 36®
67 7 00*
53 3 50®
47 28 19®
60 27 33®
36 10 26®
72 7 65®
66 11 55®
39 11 28*
34 9 25®

3 3 0
26 7 19®
21 3 18®
48 7 41*
74 10 64®
51 9 36®
42 6 36*
54 16 36*
68 38 30*

112 71 51*
239 180 59*
241 127 114®
196 101 85*
266 170 96*
257 185 72*
211 149 62*

o at .05 level of probability.



29a

Based upon that data, the appellants argue that in a race- 
free hiring environment the proportion of black lieutenants 
would have been significantly less than fifty percent in 1973 
and 1974 They argue that in an increasingly black labor pool 
for new hires, it takes time for the percentage of blacks in the 
police department to equal the current percentages of blacks in 
the labor m arket In addition, they contend that Mr. Fechter s 
iarbor pool for promotion to lieutenant would be considerably 
less than that for new hires because there is a further delay 
of several years before a recently-hired officer becomes eligible 
for promotion to lieutenant Thus, the appellants argue that 
this data and these additional factors for consideration estab­
lish the error in basing this affirmative action goal on die sta­
tistical data for the city’s overall population.

On appeal, the appellants now agree that the lieutenant 
corps should have been more than five percent black as 
actually was the case in 1973-74 but, after reassessing their 
case, the appellants now argue that in the absence of past 
discrimination the 1973 ratio of black lieutenants would have 
been, at most, about thirty percent They assert, therefore, 
that the 50 /50  ratio is improper and that if such a ratio were 
nevertheless employed it should be discontinued at the point 
when redress has beeen completed, i.e., at no point later than 
when the thirty percent figure has been attained.43 Since a 
thirty percent figure was reached by the time of trial in 1978- 
79, the appellants argue that the program should be terminated 
now. Their complaint, then, centers on the validity of the

No. 80-1837 Bratton, et al. v. City of Detroit, at aL 28

^3 In the course of oral argument Judge Celebrezze asked the 
plaintiffs whether they were contending that a thirty percent end 
goal was reasonable Despite the data disclosing this thirty percent 
figure, the plaintiffs refused to admit that they considered even that 
degree of affirmative action to be “reasonable”. In light of the 
first branch of their argument, i.e., that no redress was necessary 
at this level, such a stance appears to have been judicious at that 
stage. However, given our disposition of the appellants’ argument 
regarding the need for redress, we will proceed to consider their 
reasonableness arguments in light of the data they have supplied 
on this point.



30a

top twenty percent of the affirmative action program, both  in 
the interim application and in the determination of its stopping 
point We find their arguments unpersuasive.

First, assuming that we were to accept the appellants’ claim 
that the justifiable end goal should fall somewhere short of 
the fifty percent figure, that would not invalidate the imple­
mentation of a 50/50 ratio as the promotional guideline in 
1974 Even the use of a guideline which exceeds the per­
centage of minorities in the population would be justifiable as 
a temporary measure for attaining an appropriate end goal 
See e.g ., NAACP v. M en , 493 F.2d 814 {5th Or. 1974) (ap­
proving 50/50 black-white hiring ratio until 25 percent of 
state troopers were black). The 1974 affirmative action pro­
gram could not and did not immediately rectify the effects of 
prior discrimination in the department During the lag time 
after the adoption of the affirmative action plan in 1974 the 
police force began to more closely approximate the desired 
nondiscriminatory racial composition but always fell short of 
that goal The alternative — the en mass replacement in 1974 
of existing white lieutenants with new black lieutenants — 
would have avoided the continuing discrimination but would 
obviously have unduly harmed the white lieutenants. The 
redress of the continuing discriminatory effect of past hiring 
and promotion practices justifies the use of at least a 50/50 
ratio.

Second, while purporting to represent the percentage of 
black lieutenants that would have existed in a discrimination- 
free environment, plaintiffs’ thirty percent end figure fails to 
reflect the full extent of the police department’s pre-1974 dis­
criminatory practices. The figure refers only to the number 
of black lieutenants who, according to the plaintiffs, should be 
promoted in order to bring the force up to the appropriate 
figure. This proposed benchmark thus fails to account for 
those blacks who — absent discrimination — would have be­
come lieutenants and  would have left the force or retired by 
1973. While we cannot presume to establish the precise size

30 Bratton, et d . v. City of Detroit, et d . Na 8ft-1837



31a

of this group, we are convinced of its existence. In addition 
to the intangible stigmatizing effects of invidious treatment, 
the members of this group were deprived of the higher salaries 
and retirement benefits commensurate with lieutenancy. The 
Fourteenth Amendment does not forbid consideration and re­
dress of tins injury by affirmative action. In light of the fact 
that the department and the lieutenant corps were far below 
the nondiscriminatory level o f black police officers for the 25- 
year period from 1945 to 1970, we do not believe that mar­
ginally increasing the percentage of black lieutenants above 
the figure that would exist had hiring been nondiscriminatory 
is an unreasonable remedy for redressing this wrong.

Third, discrimination in hiring in the Detroit police de­
partment has not injured only that finite number of black 
citizens who were denied the opportunity to become police 
officers or to be promoted to the rank of lieutenant The 
district court found that the black population of the city was 
subject to discrimination by a predominantly white police 
force. The record establishes a pattern of mistreatment in 
the form of outright discrimination by white officers against 
black citizens as well as more subtle discrimination in the 
handling of complaints and investigations. A number of wit­
nesses testified to the fact that many such incidents could 
have been avoided had black lieutenants been overseeing the 
interaction of police officers with black citizens. There is a 
clear pattern of unconstitutional deprivation of the rights of 
a specific, identifiable segment of the Detroit population by 
white members of the segregated police department. This 
injury was itself a direct result of the interdepartmental dis­
crimination which is so fully documented. The 1974 affirma­
tive action plan was dedicated to redressing a ll deleterious 
effects of the department’s prior practices. ThS-Xeefeess- of 
this injury to the black gopulatkaa~as__a. whole justifies a plan 
whicE~go«_Beyond the thirty percent work force limitation 
which appellants imply may have been appropriate.44

^  W@ recognize that others who have addressed these precise issues

No. 80-1837 Bratton, et d . v. City o f Detroit, et aL 31



32a

Finally, the broad-based attack on the use of city-wide popu­
lation figures is simply unsupportable. The Supreme Court 
has approved the use of racial composition comparisons be­
tween employers’ work forces and the general area-wide popu­
lation as probative of discrimination in employment discrimi­
nation cases, see e.g., Hazelwood School District v. United 
States, 443 U.S. 299, 308 (1977); In t’l. B rotherhood  o f  T eam ­
sters v. United States, 431 U.S. 324, 337-43 (1977), and this 
Court has specifically held that in the context of challenges to 
affirmative action, “a goal which seeks the same racial pro­
portion among employees as in the labor force will ordinarily 
be reasonable.” Detroit Police Officers Association v. Young, 
808 F.2d at 898. In addition to the presumption of reason­
ableness which would ordinarily be accorded the use of such 
data, the district court specifically considered the prerequisites

312 Bratton, et aL. v. City of Detroit, et al. No. 80-183?

have done so in the context of a discussion of operational needs. 
The First Circuit recognized the unique problem which arises when 
those specifically designated to work with and protect the public 
wholly fail to reflect the racial composition of that population. That 
court’s consideration of the problem was couched in terms of opera­
tional needs:

An important factor in these cases is that they involve the 
police and fire departments of a large metropolitan city that 
now has a minority population of at least 30 percent . . . . 
As Judge Wyzanski noted, the public interest requires a racially 
balanced police force. Castro v. Beecher, 365 F.Supp. at 660. We 
do not need expert testimony to make the point that, nnlpsg the 
public safety departments of a city reflect its growing minority 
population, there is bound to be antagonism, hostility and strife 
between the citizenry and those departments. The inevitable 
result is poor police and fire protection for those who need it 
most

We have chosen to deal with the situation with regard to the Detroit 
citizenry as an element of our redress analysis. This is so because 
in Detroit the issue cannot be neatly categorized within the bounds 
of “operational needs.” We are faced with far more than a generalized 
need for a police force which reflects the racial composition of 
the _ city. We are faced, rather, with a population that has been 
subjected to constitutional indignities as a direct result of the dis­
criminatory practices which have created and maintained a white- 
dominated police force. Whatever the appropriate semantics in such 
a situation, we are convinced that the facts present a constitutionally 
valid justification (a substantial governmental interest) for the 
implementation of this particular affirmative action remedy.



33a

for- employment in the police force and the impact, if any, 
those considerations should have in an appropriate calcula­
tion of the relevant labor market Judge Keith accepted the 
use of the city-wide figures in light of the prerequisites for 
employment, not in contravention of them.48

We also reject the appellants’ contention that this plan is 
oonstitutionally infirm because it somehow “unnecessarily 
trammels” the interests of the white officers. While a prefer­
ence system which requires the outright discharge of white 
employees of creates an absolute bar to all advancement may 
be regarded as an undue burden on those white employees, 
we have neither of those situations in the instant case. We 
have already indicated that the mere fact that non-minorities 
bear some burden in effectuating the state’s goals does not 
command a conclusion that the plan is unreasonable. Concern 
for the interests of white employees is not meant to operate as 
a bar to the achievement of those legitimate goals. See D etroit 
Police O fficers A ssociation  v. Young, 608 F.2d at 696. Where, 
as here, the plan does not mandate the promotion of unquali­
fied candidates, a significant number of white employees have 
been promoted under the plan, the operation of the plan does 
not otherwise hinder the rights of these employees and the 
plan is merely of a temporary nature, we find that the 
interests or the white officers have not been “unnecessarily 
trammeled.”44

No, 80-1837 Bratton, et aL v. City of Detroit, et aL 33

48 Baker v. City o f Detroit, 483 F.Supp. at 958-82.
The plaintiffs have argued that the plan unnecessarily burdens 

white employees because, at the promotion level, particular white 
employees must directly £eel the impact of its operation. They fiaim 
that the expectations of identifiable white officers are destroyed when 
they take, and receive, a qualifying score on the written »-ra'n« and 
still are denied promotions. The appellants draw a distinction be­
tween this situation and that at the hiring level where the impact is 
diffused and it is unclear whether a given minority applicant was 
hired in place of a given white. For the reasons detailed in the 
district court opinion, we reject this contention and choose not to 
"take a jaundiced view” toward affirmative action in promotions. 
Baker v. City of Detroit, 483 F.Supp. at 985.



34a

. We affirm the district court’s determination that the use of 
a 50/50 ratio and the establishment of a fifty percent end 
goal to be achieved by 1990 is reasonable in all respects. 
Therefore, in light of our conclusions that there was a sub’ 
stantial governmental interest served in establishing the plan 
and that the plan does not unduly stigmatize any individual 
or group, we find that the Detroit plan is constitutionally 
permissible.47

34 Bratton, et aL v. City o f Detroit, et d . No, 80-1837

IV

In addition to the appellants’ central attack on the affirma­
tive action plan itself, a number of other assignments of error 
have been raised with regard to the various rulings made by 
the district court in. this matter. The appellants contend 
that the district court erred (1 ) in dismissing the plaintiffs’ 
complaint for money damages other than back pay, (2 ) in 
denying their request for a jury trial on the various issues 
relating to the validity of the affirmative action plan, and (3 ) 
in incorporating the voluntary plan into its final decree.

A. Dismissal of Complaints For Money Damages under 
§ 1983

In an order dated September 5, 1979, the district court 
granted the defendants’ motion for partial summary judgment 
and dismissed the plaintiffs’ claims under 42 U.S.C. § 1983 
for all monetary damages other than back pay. Baker v. City 
o f Detroit, 483 F.Supp. 919 (E.D. Mich. 1979). In that 
order, the court concluded that the defendants possessed quali­
fied good faith immunity and, therefore, could not be held 
liable for damages under § 1983. The appellants now contend 
that in light of the Supreme Court’s subsequent decision in

47 As noted, the conclusion is also determinative of the appellants' 
Title VH complaint



35a

Owen v. C ity ' o f In dependence, 445 U.S. 822 (1980), t ie  
district court's decision was erroneous as a matter of law.

In Owen, the Court specifically held that a municipality 
has no immunity for its constitutional violations and that it 
may not assert the good faith of its officers or agents as a de­
fense to liability under § 1983. Id . at 638. This intervening 
Supreme Court decision clearly undercuts the basis of Judge 
Keith’s decision to grant summary judgment on these issues. It 
does not, however, require this Court to refuse to give effect to 
an ultimate ruling against the plaintiffs on their § 1983 dam­
age claims,

The issue of qualified good faith immunity is relevant in this 
case only insofar as it may affect the plaintiffs’ right to recover 
damages based on injuries for which the city is liable. We 
have, however, upheld Detroit’s affirmative action plan, con­
cluding that the city has no liability and that the plaintiffs 
are entitled to no relief. As such, whether or not the plain­
tiffs would otherwise be barred from relief is no longer an 
issue in this case. Accordingly, we decline to reach the 
question of qualified immunity presented here.

B. Bight to a Jury Trial

On July 31,1978, the district court entered an order denying 
the plaintiffs’ demand for a jury trial B aker v. City o f D etroit, 
458 F.Supp. 379 (E.D. Mich. 1978). The appellants now claim 
that that ruling was erroneous and had the effect of violating 
their constitutional right to a jury trial under the Seventh 
Amendment.48 We find, however, that the issue of the validity

No. 80-1837 Bratton, et d . v. City of Detroit, et ah 35

48 The Seventh Amendment provides:
In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall 
exceed twenty dollars, the right of a trial by jury shall be 
preserved, and no fact tried by jury, shall be otherwise re- 
examined in any Court of the United States, than according 
to the rules of the common law. "



36a

of an affirmative action plan is a question of law, to be de­
termined by the court and not the jury. Setser v. N ovack 
Investm ent Co., 657 F.2d 962, 969-70 ( 8th Cir. 1981)(en 
ban c). A variety of factors militate in favor of this conclu­
sion.

First, the fact of prior discrimination and the factual circum­
stances surrounding the operation of this plan were either un­
contested or previously determined in our decision in Young. 
The task before Judge Keith was to determine whether, in 
light of that record, redress was justifiable and/or the method 
chosen for that redress was valid. Determinations which do 
no more than attach constitutional significance to historical 
facte are conclusions of law. See Downing v. W illiam s, 624 
F.2d 612, 017 (5th Cir. 1980); cf. Glasson v. City o f Louis- 
vitte, 518 F.2d 899, 903 ( 6th Cir. 1975).

Second, in order to assess the validity of an affirmative 
action plan, a variety of factors must be considered and eval­
uated in light of the nature of the past discrimination and 
all factors relating to the particular method chosen. The 
Supreme Court's refusal to adopt bright line standards to 
guide the lower courts and the consensus among the Cir­
cuits that an application of strict standards is therefore inap­
propriate, emphasizes the degree to which this evaluation is to 
be a flexible one. See Setser v. N ovack Investm ent Co., 657 
F.2d at 690. The inherent uncertainty in the law in this area, 
when combined with the magnitude of the issues to be re­
solved, places the necessary determinations in these cases 
peculiarly outside the practical abilities and limitations of the 
jury. Id .; cf. Ross v. Bernard, 396 U.S. 531 (1970).

Third, questions in this case regarding the Board’s findings 
of past discrimination are analogous to cases in which the 
court reviews the decision of an administrative body in order 
to insure that its actions are within constitutional and statu­
tory limits. Although the district court under § 1983 gave 
de novo review to the Police Board’s action, it was still es-

36 Bratton, e l al. v. City of Detroit, et a l  No. 80-1837



37a

sentiafly reviewing the findings and conclusions of an admini­
strative agency taken upon notice and due deliberation after 
formal hearings were conducted. Neither federal nor state 
courts have traditionally used juries to review and resolve 
disputed questions of fact in this context See Jaffee, Judicial 
Control o f Adm inistrative Action 546-49 (1965); Stem, Review  
o f Findings o f Administrators, Judges and Juries, 58 Harv.L. 
Rev. 70 (1944).

Had the district court determined, in the liability phase 
of this trial,4* that the Board had wrongfully discriminated 
against white officers in adopting the affirmative action plan, 
it may have then been appropriate to impanel a jury to de­
termine disputed questions of fact on the issue of whether 
the city had engaged in the discrimination against white offi­
cers as a part of a “custom or policy” under M onett v. New  
York City, 436 U.S. 658, 690-95 (1978), and whether the indi­
vidual defendants acted in good faith under Owens v. City o f 
Independence, 445 U.S. 622, 657 (1980). The case, however, 
never reached that stage since the district court found, and 
we agree, that the Board did not act wrongfully in the first 
instance.

Finally, as the district court noted, “the gravamen of this 
action is injunctive relief and back pay for alleged employment 
discrimination.” B aker v. City o f D etroit, 458 F.Supp. at 383. 
The question of whether the city and its officials committed 
a constitutional tort under § 1983 which would justify dam­
ages, arises in this case only incidentally and only after the 
district court has determined whether it should enjoin the plan 
as invalid under Title VII and the Fourteenth Amendment. 
The fact that the parties stipulated to a bifurcation of the 
trial emphasizes this result. In order to establish the right to 
damages arising under § 1983, the plaintiffs would be required

No. 80-1837 Bratton, et d l v. City of Detroit, et dL 37

49 The parties, by stipulation, agreed to a bifurcation of this trial, 
with the issues of liability to be determined before the reaching of 
damage questions.



38a

to go beyond showing unconstitutional reverse discrimination; 
the bad faith of the individuals and the question of whether 
the city had acted according to a “custom or policy” would 
yet need to be resolved. The district court’s adjudication 
of the equitable issues relating to the statutory and con­
stitutional validity of the plan logically must come prior to 
the | 1983 damages issue. In such instances, our common 
law heritage does not suggest that a jury should have been 
employed to deal with the wholly equitable phase of the 
court’s determination.30

3S Bratton, e t  cd. v. City o f Detroit, et at. No,- 80-1837

C. District Court’s Final Decree

On November 17, 1980, the district court "adopted a rule 
of law” which had the effect of incorporating the Board’s plan, 
as it was then in operation, into the final judgment B aker v. 
City o f  Detroit, 504F.Supp. 841, 846-48 (E.D. Mich. 1980). For 
the reasons enumerated below, we find that the district court’s 
decision to protect this plan was appropriate.

In examining the propriety of this “rale of law,” we must 
carefully define what we interpret the effect of that ruling to 
be and the particular circumstances which we find justify such 
a result in this case.

This case began with a consideration of what a govern­
mental employer may voluntarily do in an effort to remedy 
prior discrimination. Since we do not now hold that the 
bounds of constitutionally perm issible action are coexistent 
with what a governmental employer may be constitutionally 
requ ired  to do, it would appear that freezing a voluntary plan 38

38 Affirmative action plans may be objected to under Title VH, 
i 1981, § 1983 and the Fourteenth Amendment, The unique nature 
of the questions involved in determining the validity of any given 
program requires unique forms of analysis in each of these areas. 
Our decision today upholding the district courts denial of a jury 
trial in the affirmative action context in no way reflects upon a 
plaintiffs right to a jury trial in other § 1983 contexts; we do not 
now go beyond the issue put before us.



39a

Into an immutable decree may be inappropriate. Such a result 
may effectively remove some of tire discretion over the im­
plementation of affirmative action plans which, is to be afforded 
those dealing with the realities and problems of the employ­
ment context, even where governmental employers are con­
cerned. See United Steel W orkers o f A m erica v. W eber, supra; 
LaR iviere v. EEO C, supra. There is also a danger of removing 
some of the incentive to adopt broad plans because of a fear 
of being locked into more than an involuntary judicial de­
cree would otherwise require. The district court’s final order 
in this case does not operate to “freeze” this plan, however, 
and, hence, does not give rise to such concerns.

The district court likened its decision in this case to one 
which approximates the situation which exists when a court 
enters a consent decree approving jointly agreed to affirmative 
action plans. In those cases, the court effectively retains juris­
diction over the operation of the plan in order to assure that 
(1) the parties have a forum in which to object to actions 
which appear to violate the terms of the decree, and (2 ) no 
changes in the plan will be implemented unless the court 
determines that those changes are consistent with the purpose 
of that decree. The court’s order in this case merely operates 
to protect the Board’s plan from inappropriate changes or 
collateral attacks which would vitiate its effect Rather than 
discourage voluntary action, then, the decision to incorporate 
this plan into a judicial decree is likely to encourage i t  Those, 
like the Board, faced with the decision of whether or not to 
adopt any affirmative action may more readily do so if they 
can be assured that their efforts, once deemed proper by a 
federal court, will be protected from a mere changing of the 
guard or from future attacks which they would be required 
to fend off. Retaining jurisdiction will provide this protection 
while not completely tying the Board’s hands with regard to 
appropriate future alterations.

The facts of this case indicate that such retention of juris­

No. 80-1837 Bratton, et d . v. City of Detroit, et d . 39



40a

diction is particularly appropriate. After making extensive 
findings regarding the existence of prior discrimination in and 
by the Detroit Police Department, the district court found that 
not only was the Board’s plan itself constitutionally permis­
sible, but that som e affirmative action remedy was actually 
constitutionally required. Continuing jurisdiction is the only 
logical approach to such a case. In tins way, some degree of 
discretion over the voluntary plan is retained by those adopt­
ing it while, at the same time, allowing the court to insure that 
the plan will, at minimum, satisfy what the Constitution 
requires.

This approach will also promote judicial economy. Further 
factfinding and court proceedings would otherwise be neces­
sary if the plan were abandoned and black officers compelled 
to sue for som e remedy, or further attacks on the plan were 
to be made, and defendend against, in state court The record 
dearly reflects hostility toward the Board’s plan and a desire 
to pursue any colorable state or federal claims in opposition 
thereto, even in the face of extensive judicial considerations of 
all issues presented. We cannot blink at this reality.

Accordingly, we affirm the district court’s final order inso­
far as it operates to retain jurisdiction over the operation of, 
and changes in, the Board’s affirmative action program for 
promotion to the rank of lieutenant11

V

Challenges to affirmative action plans present a number of 
difficult and sensitive issues with which courts must straggle. It 
is in cases like this one, however, where the facte so clearly es­
tablish the presence of calculated, prior discriminatory prac~

Sl ®yen ?ur characterization of and justification for this element 
of the district court’s order, it appears that the dissent simply mis­
construes this  ̂portion of the opinion. Additionally, since the reten- 
tion of jurisdiction is merely for the purpose of guarding against 
ijupermisstb le changes in the plan, the notion that the plan is itself 
discriminatory against blacks is clearly without merit.

40 Bratton, et  si. v. City of Detroit, et aL No. 80=1837



41a

No. 80-1837 Bratton, et d , v. City o f D etroit, et aL 41

faces, that the need for such remedial programs is most acute. 
Upon careful examination of the plan adopted by the Police 
Board, we are convinced that it is a valid, legitimate response 
to this identifiable discrimination and that as implemented it 
falls within the permissible bounds of Title VII, § 1983 and the 
Fourteenth Amendment We therefore affirm the district 
court’s order upholding the plan and approve the decision to 
protect that plan by continuing jurisdiction over its operation.

Since we also find that the determination of the validity of 
an affirmative action plan is a question of law for the court and 
not for the jury, and that the appellants’ claim for § 1983 
damages has been mooted by our resolution of the liability 
issues, all of the district court’s orders relating to this matter 
are hereby Apf ie m e d ,



42a

42 Bratton, et d . v. City of Detroit, et d . No. 80-1837

Cktoeezze, Senior Circuit Judge, concurring m result.

The issue regarding die appropriate constitutional analy­
sis in a benign discrimination case was addressed by this 
court in Detroit Police Officers Assoc, v. Young, 608 F.2d 671 
(6th Cir. 1979). I believe that this court's opinion in Young is 
the controlling precedent in this instance and that 4©  con­
stitutional analysis contained in Young is consistent with the 
Judgment of die district court Therefore, I agree that the 
Judgment of the district court should be affirmed.



No. -80-1837 - Bratton, et sL v. City of-D etroit, e t d . 43

■ ME£nrl%'-CfrGmYJudgex concurring is part ’and dissenting 
in part. I  concur in Sections I, II A , III, IV.A and IV.B of the 
opinion filed by Judge Jones for the Court I do not concur 
in the reasoning .of Sections ILB or die result or the reasoning 
of Section IV.C.

L TH E COURT HAS- NO POWER TO MAKE TH E 
: AFFIRMATIVE ACTION PLAN MANDATORY

In Section*TV.C of t ie  opinion, the Court, affirming the 
opinion of the District Court, has ordered the City to enforce 
a plan requiring the Police Department to hire or promote a 
white officer for every other job opening. The plan governs 
all hiring and promotion in l ie  Police Department. If t ie  
City of Detroit ias two vacancies in the Police Department, it 
may not hire or promote two blacks or two whites depending 
on availability and qualifications. The Court has ordered that 
the City must always fill the two vacancies with one black 
and one white. Our Court’s order, like the District Court’s 
order to this effect, is irrational and constitutes an illegal 
exercise of judicial power.

Today, according to the latest dicexmial census, Detroit's 
population is more than 83% blade According to the census, 
Detroit has a population of 1,203,339 people, 758,939 of 
whom are black and 413,730 of whom are white. See General 
Population Characteristics for Michigan, 1980 Census, PC80- 
1-B24, United States Bureau of Census, Table 44, page 24418. 
A court-ordered plan that forbids the City from hiring or pro­
moting blacks in proportion to the population and labor pool 
appears patently discriminatory against the black citizens of 
Detroit The City is 63% black, but by federal court order the 
Police Department may not be more than 50% black.

The District Court got itself into this strange situation be­
cause it held that if an “affirmative action plan is upheld,” then 
“the approved plan should be treated as a court judgment, just 
as a consent decree is. It is this rule o f law  which this court



44a

will adopt" (Emphasis added.) The District Court went on 
to say that “affirmative action is required, not merely per­
mitted" and “must have the force and effect of an order of 
this Court.” (Final opinion, Nov. 17, 1980, Technical Record, 
VoL V, Document 129, pp. 8-8.) Where such a “rule of law” 
comes from, neither this Court nor the District Court tries 
to tell us. I know of no justification for such a “rule of law.” 
None is cited. Even if the plan does not now appear to 
discriminate against black citizens of Detroit, there is no 
justification for writing the plan into federal law by judicial 
decree. To extend constitutionally mandatory status to the 
City’s plan distorts the nature of the proceedings below. This 
action was brought by white police officers who believed that 
they have been victimized by an illegal affirmative action pilot 
program. The City defended by demonstrating the history 
of departmental discrimination against blacks, a history that 
provided die justification for the plan. The issue at trial was 
never whether this history required the City to adopt precisely 
this plan. Rather, the Court had to decide whether — in light 
of the past — the City was justified in pursuing the new 
policy. The District Court resolved this issue in favor of die 
City. For the City, having devised the plan, now to surren­
der further responsibility to the Court is anomalous. The 
City is the responsible front line actor and should remain 
die institution politically accountable for its policies.

I would vacate the order of the District Court in this re­
spect and remand die case to the District Court with instruc­
tions to consider what should now be done with the affirmative 
action plan in light of 1980 census figures indicating rfiaf the 
plan discriminates against blacks.

44 Bratton, et aL v. City of Detroit, et al. No. 80-1837



45a

31. THE COURT DOES NOT STATE THE CORRECT 
TEST OF CONSTITUTIONALITY UNDER THE 

FOURTEENTH AMENDMENT IN SECTION H.B OF 
ITS OPINION ALTHOUGH IT  APPLIES THE CORRECT 

TEST IN SECTION HI OF THE OPINION 
In assessing the validity of the voluntary governmental 

affirmative action plan in question, the Fourteenth Amend­
ment requires a more exacting standard than the open-ended, 
mere “reasonableness” standard stated by the Court In order 
to be valid," a-1 non-Congressional, governmental, affirmative 
action plan must meet the following exacting procedural and 
substantive standards under die B akke and FuUUove cases:

1. P rocedurd standard. — After rational and deliberative 
consideration, a governmental agency competent to 
make findings concerning racial discrimination by the 
governmental institution in question must make valid 
and supportable findings of prior discrimination, and it 
must make valid findings concerning the percentage 
of minority members who would have been employed 
by the governmental institution in question in the 
absence of discrimination.

2. Substantive standard. — These findings by a compe­
tent governmental agency must fully justify the per­
centage of minority members to be given preference 
under the affirmative action plan and the duration of 
the program, and the remedy incorporated in the 
affirmative action plan must not unduly burden or 
harm innocent parties in light of other available 
remedies.

Although the Court states the standard under the Four­
teenth Amendment in far less exacting language than this, 
the Court in fact applies this very set of standards in Section 
HI of its opinion. I, therefore, concur in the Court’s conclu­
sion that — in light of the information available in 1974 — the 
Detroit Board of Police Commissioners’ findings justified the 
remedy it adopted.

No. 80-1837 Bratton, et d . v. City of Detroit, et d . 45



46a

IN  T H E  U N IT E D  STA TE S C O U R T  O F  A P P E A L S  
F O R  T H E  S IX T H  C IR C U IT

No. 80 -1 8 3 7

H anson B ratton , et al.
Plaintiffs-A ppellants,

and
U n ited  S tates of A m er ic a ,

A pplicant f o r  Intervention,
versus
T h e  C it y  o f  D e t r o it , et a l . ,

Defendants-Appellees,

and
G uardians of M ich ig an , et a l.,

Intervening D efendants-Appellees.

O n  Appeal from  the U nited  States D istric t C ourt 
for the E astern  D istric t o f M ich igan

C E R T IF IC A T E  O F  P U B L IC  IM P O R T A N C E

T h e  A tto rn ey  G e n e ra l o f  the U n ite d  S ta tes  h ereb y  certifies 
to  th is H o n o ra b le  C o u rt th at the U n ite d  S ta tes  h as d e ter­
m in ed  this case to b e  o f  g en era l p u blic  im p o rta n ce  in  a cco rd ­
a n ce  w ith  the p rovisions o f  S e c tio n  7 0 6 ( f ) ( 1 )  o f  T it le  V I I  o f  
th e  C iv il R ig h ts  A ct o f  1 9 6 4 , as am en d ed  by  the E q u a l E m ­
p lo y m e n t O p p o rtu n ity  A ct o f  1 9 7 2 , 42  U .S .C .  S e c tio n  
2 0 0 0 e - ( f ) ( l ) ,  an d  o f  S e c tio n  9 0 2  o f  the C iv il R ig h ts  A ct o f  
1 9 6 4 , 42  U .S .C .  S e ctio n  2 0 0 0 h -2 .

/s / W illiam  F rench  S m ith________

W illia m  F re n ch  S m ith  
A tto rn ey  G e n e ra l o f  the 

U n ite d  S ta tes

A p ril 2 8 , 1983



47a

No, 8 0 -1 8 3 7

U N I T E D  S T A T E S  C O U R T  O F  A P P E A L S  
F O R  T H E  S I X T H  C I R C U I T

(F ile d  M a y  2 7 , 1983 )

H anson B ratton , et a l.,
Plaintiffs-A ppellants,

and

U nited  S tates of A m er ic a ,
A pplicant f o r  Intervention,

T h e  C it y  of D e t r o it , M ich ig an , 
D efendants-Appellees,

and

G uardians o f M ich ig an , et a l.,
Intervening Defendants-Appellees.

O R D E R

B E F O R E : M E R R I T T  an d  J O N E S ,  C irc u it  Ju d g e s , and 
C E L E B R E Z Z E , S e n io r  C irc u it Ju d g e .

T h e  U n ite d  S ta tes  o f  A m e rica , th rou g h  the C iv il R ig h ts  
D ivision  o f  the Ju s t ic e  D e p a rtm e n t, h as req u ested  leave to in ­
tervene as a p arty  ap p ellan t and  to file a  su ggestion  o f  re h e a r­
ing en banc in  excess o f  the n o rm a l page lim it. T h e  C ity  o f 
D e tro it, d efen d an ts-ap p ellees, an d  the G u ard ian s o f  M ic h i­
gan , in terv en in g  d efen d an ts-ap p ellees, h ave filed  opp ositions 
to that req u est. U p o n  co n sid era tio n  o f  all issues ra ised , 
arg u m en ts p resen ted  an d  in terests c la im ed , we find  th at the 
g o v ern m en t’s in terest can  b e  ad eq u ately  p ro tected  v ia  p a r­
tic ip ation  as an  am icus curiae an d  th at the in terests o f  all others 
involved, in clu d in g  the C o u r t, will b e  best served b y  a d en ial 
o f  the req u est to in terv en e at th is la te  d ate. A cco rd in g ly , w hile



48a

th e  U n ite d  S ta tes  is free to req u est the rig h t to  file an  am icus 
b r ie f  w ith  this C o u rt if  an d  w hen  a  re h e a rin g  o f  th is cau se 
should  o ccu r, the m otio n  to in terv en e  as a p arty  ap p ellan t is 
h ereb y  D E N IE D .

T h e  issues in  this case h ave b een  fully an d  q u ite  co m p e te n t­
ly b rie fed  and  argu ed  by the p arties in v olv ed , in clu d in g  p a r ­
ties w ho sought, and w ere g ran ted , the rig ht to in terv en e  at a 
m u ch  e a rlie r  tim e. T h o s e  issues h av e b e e n  carefu lly  c o n ­
sid ered  by  this p anel and  a p etition  fo r re h e a rin g  and/or 
re h e a rin g  en banc is now  p en d in g  b efo re  the p an el and  the full 
C o u r t , resp ectively . T h e r e  is n o  rea so n  to  b eliev e th a t the 
p resen ce  o f  a new  p arty  is req u ired  at th is p o in t for the C o u rt 
to b e  cap ab le  o f  a p ro p er reso lu tion  o f  the issues it h as alread y  
b e g u n  to consid er.

A  p rio r p anel w as faced  w ith  m an y  o f the sam e co n sid e ra ­
tio n s in  Detroit Police Officers A ssociation v. Young, 6 0 8  F .2 d  671 
(6 th  C ir . 1 9 7 9 ), cert, denied, 452  U .S .  9 3 8  (1 9 8 1 ) . In  fact, the 
a ffirm ativ e  action  an alyzed  in  Young a rose  ou t o f  the very sam e 
p lan  the C o u rt has b een  asked to review  in  the p resen t case . In  
Young, the Ju s t ic e  D e p a rtm e n t jo in e d  in  an  am icus b r ie f  filed  by 
the E q u a l E m p lo y m en t O p p o rtu n ity  C o m m iss io n  req u estin g  
th a t the p lan  be u pheld  in the face o f  ch a llen g es u n d er 
T it le  V I I  and  the F ou rteen th  A m en d m en t. T h e  g o v ern m en t’s 
in terest w as then  fully con sid ered . T h e  p an el m a jo r ity  in  this 
case sp ecifically  follow ed the stand ard s set ou t in  Young. I f  the 
g o v ern m en t w ishes to argu e th at its p osition  h as som ehow  
sh ifted  s in ce  the Young d ec is io n , su rely  th a t ca n  b e  a c ­
com p lish ed  b y  v irtu e o f  an o th er am icus p re sen ta tio n  to  the 
C o u r t, as w as p erm itted  in Young and has recen tly  b e e n  p e r­
m itted  by  the S u p rem e C o u rt in  Boston Firefighters L o c a l Union  
N o. 7 1 8  v. Boston Chapter, A Z T 4 C P (S .C t. N os. 8 2 -1 8 5 , 8 2 -2 4 6 , 
8 2 -2 5 9 ) .

T h e  h a rm  to the p arties opposed to the g o v e rn m e n t’s in te r­
v en tio n , and  the h a rm  to the p ro p er a d m in istra tio n  and



49a

disposition  o f  su ch  a m a jo r  su it, so lo n g  p en d in g  before this 
C o u rt, sim ply ou tw eighs any cla im ed  h arm  to the g o v ern ­
m e n t’s T it le  V I I  e n fo rcem e n t in te re s ts .1 T h e  p lain tiffs have 
show n a c lear in c lin a tio n  in  the p ast to fully and v igorously  
argu e all re lev an t issues an d  h ave exp ressed  th e ir  in ten tio n  to 
pursue this case th ro u g h  all av a ilab le  ch an n els , in clu d in g  a 
p etition  for reh ea rin g  en banc in  this C o u rt and  an  ap p lica tion  
for certiorari in  the S u p re m e C o u rt. W h ile  the g o v e rn m e n t’s 
n ew ly -in jected  p resen ce as an  am icus curiae a t those stages m ay 
p ro v e h e lp fu l, its  p re se n c e  as a  p a r ty  at th is  p o in t is 
u n w arran ted .

T h e  U n ited  S ta tes  m a y  req u est the rig ht to p resen t its 
arg u m en ts to  the C o u rt as an  am icus curiae i f  and  w hen the full 
C o u rt should  d eem  a  reh e a rin g  ap p ro p ria te . T h e  req u est to 
in terv en e as a p arty  ap p ellan t an d , th erefo re , to file a su gges­
tion  for reh ea rin g  is D E N IE D .

'We note that the Justice Department’s claim in this regard lacks much of 
the weight it might otherwise carry given the conflict between the position 
the Department has taken here and that taken by others vested with en­
forcement powers under Title V II, particularly the Equal Employment 
Opportunity Commission.



50a

No. 8 0 -1 8 3 7

B R A T T O N  v. C IT Y  O F  D E T R O IT

M E R R I T T ,  C irc u it  Ju d g e , d issen tin g . T h e  U n ite d  S ta tes  
th ro u g h  the A tto rn ey  G e n e ra l h as certified  th at th is case is a 
c iv il rig hts case o f  “ g en era l p u b lic  im p o rta n c e ”  u n d er 42  
U .S .C .  § 2 0 0 0 h -2  (1 9 7 6 ) , and thus the g o v ern m en t is en titled  
to  in terv en e  as a m atte r o f  rig h t “ u pon  tim ely  a p p lic a t io n .”  
T h e  A tto rn ey  G e n e ra l sought to in terv en e  u n d er th is  sta tu te  a 
few days a fter rece iv in g  o u r C o u r t ’ s o p in io n  in  this case . W e 
h av e u n iform ly  p erm itted  the U n ite d  S ta tes  to in terv en e  in 
o th e r  civ il rights cases, and  I w ould n ot d en y  the g o v ern m en t 
th a t rig h t now . T h e  g o v e rn m e n t’s arg u m en ts  m a y  o r  m ay  not 
h av e m e rit, b u t its rig ht to b e  h eard  seem s c lea r . I ,  th e re fo re , 
resp ectfu lly  d isagree w ith the o p in io n  o f  the C o u rt d en y in g  
in terv en tio n .

E N T E R E D  B Y  O R D E R  O F  T H E  C O U R T

/s/ J ohn P . H ehman

J o h n  P . H e h m a n , C le rk



51a

IN  T H E  U N IT E D  STA TE S C O U R T  O.F A P P E A L S 
F O R  T H E  S IX T H  C IR C U IT

(Received M ay 22, 1983)

No. 80 -1 8 3 7

H anson B ratton , et a l.,
Plaintiffs-A ppellants,

and

U n ited  S tates of A m eric a ,
A pplicant f o r  Intervention,

vs.

T h e  C it y  of D e t r o it , M ichigan , et al., 
Defendants-Appellees,

and

G uardians of M ichigan , et a l.,
Intervening Defendants-Appellees.

A P P E L L A N T S ’ P E T IT IO N  F O R  R E H E A R IN G  AND 
S U G G E ST IO N  O F  R E H E A R IN G  EN  BANC

R a m sd ell , O ade & F eldman 
by: K . Preston Oade, J r .  (P28506) 
Attorney f o r  P laintiffs-A ppellants  
25130 Southfield Road 
Suite 100
Southfield, M I 48075 
(313) 552-9400



52a

PAGE

I N D E X  O F  A U T H O R I T I E S  ................................................ 5 3 a

S T A T E M E N T  O F  I S S U E S  P R E S E N T E D .................... 5 4 a

S T A T E M E N T  O F  T H E  C A S E ............................................. 5 4 a

S U M M A R Y  O F  E R R O R S .....................................................  5 5 a

A R G U M E N T  A N D  A U T H O R I T I E S ............................  5 7 a

A . T h e  P an e l c learly  erred  in  re ly in g  on  g en era l
p op u lation  figu res th at in clu d e su b stan tia l 
segm ents o f  the p op u lation  w ho ca n n o t or do 
not w ish to  seek em p lo y m en t, o r  are  o th e r­
wise n ot qu alified  for em p lo y m en t as police 
o fficer or police l i e u t e n a n t .......................................  5 8 a

B . T h e  use o f  g en era l p op u lation  figu res has no
p ro bativ e  valu e on  the q u estio n  o f  d iscrim i­
n atio n  becau se the p op u lation  is u n stab le  
and  has ch an g ed  rap id ly  from  p red o m in ate ly  
w hite to p red o m in ate ly  b l a c k ..............................   6 1 a

C . T h e  P an e l m isread  the la b o r m ark et analysis
o f  the C ity ’s exp ert show ing  th at in  the a b ­
sence o f  d iscrim in atio n  the lieu ten an ts ran ks 
should only  b e  2 5 %  b lack  as o f  J u n e ,  19 7 8  . . 6 3 a

C O N C L U S IO N  A N D  R E L I E F  R E Q U E S T E D . . . .  7 0 a

A P P E N D I X E S ...................................................................................  7 1 a

P R O O F  O F  S E R V I C E ................................................................  7 5 a

TABLE OF CONTENTS



53a

IN D EX OF A U TH ORITIES

C A SES PAGE

Alexander v Aero L odge N o. 735, 565 F 2d 1364 (6th
Cir, 1 9 7 7 ) ..................................................................... .. ■ 59a

E E O C  v L o c a l 14, International Union o f  Operating 
Engineers, 553 F 2d 251 (2d C ir, 1 9 7 7 )................................   59a

H azelw ood  School District v United States, 433 U S 
2 9 9 (1 9 7 7 ) ..................................................................................   59a

In t ’l B rotherhood o f  Team sters v U nited States, 431 U S 
3 2 4 (1 9 7 7 ) .................................................................................... 59a

P erh a m v L a d d ,  436 F Supp 1101 (N .D . Ill, 1977). . 60a

University o f  C aliforn ia Regents v B akke , 438 U S 265
( 1 9 7 8 ) ................................................... ............................  69a



54a

T h e  qu estion s p resen ted  in  this appeal h ave b een  p rev io u s­
ly  stated  in P la in tiffs  B r ie f  on  the M e r its . T h is  p etition  for 
reh ea rin g  an d  su ggestion  for reh ea rin g  en banc focuses upon 
th e  follow ing issues:

(1 )  W h e th e r  the P an e l erred  by m isread in g  the reco rd  
ev id en ce an d , m ore p articu larly , in  fa ilin g  to co m p reh en d  the 
re lev an t lab o r m ark et d ata  show ing that the p ro m o tio n a l 
q u o ta  far exceed s its p u rp orted  rem ed ia l n a tu re?

A d d itio n ally , P la in tiff  h ereb y  adopts by  re feren ce  the q u es­
tion s p resen ted  and  b r ie f  in su pport th e re o f filed  by  the U n ite d  
S ta te s  o f  A m e rica  on  A p ril 2 9 , 1 9 8 3 . T h e  q u estion s p resen ted  
th e re in  are  as follow s:

(2 )  W h e th e r , in  the c ircu m sta n ce s o f  th is ca se , a m u n icip a l 
police  d ep artm en t m ay co n stitu tio n a lly  adopt a req u irem e n t 
that one b lack  police serg ean t be p ro m o ted  to the ra n k  o f  
lieu ten a n t for each  w hite police serg ean t so p ro m o ted  u ntil 
b lack s con stitu te  5 0 %  o f  police lieu ten an ts?

(3 )  W h e th e r , the D istr ic t C o u rt erred  in in co rp o ra tin g  in to 
a ju d ic ia l decree the m u n icip a l police  d e p a rtm e n t’s o n e-to - 
one racia l q u o ta  for p ro m o tion s to the ran k  o f  lieu ten an t?

STATEMENT OF ISSU ES PRESEN TED

S T A T E M E N T  O F T H E  C A SE

O n  M a rc h  2 9 , 1 9 8 3 , a P an e l o f  th is C o u rt ren d ered  its 
op in ion  u p hold ing an  affirm ativ e  actio n  p ro m o tio n a l q u o ta  at 
the ran k  o f  lieu ten an t in the D e tro it P o lice  D e p a rtm e n t. T h e  
q u o ta  for p ro m o tion  to lieu ten an t is part o f  a D e p a rtm e n t­
w ide affirm ativ e  action  policy  adopted  by  the D e tro it B o a rd  o f  
P o lice  C o m m issio n ers  in 19 7 4 . H ow ev er, this appeal only in ­
volves p ro m o tion s to the ra n k  o f  lieu ten an t since N o v em b er o f



55a

1975 —  and  should n ot b e  con fu sed  w ith p ro m o tion s to the 
ran k  o f  sergean t in the re lated  case o f  Detroit Police Officers 
Assoc, v Young, 6 0 8  F  2d 671 (6 th  C ir , 1979 ).

T h e  sta tem en t o f  the cou rse  o f  p roceed in gs an d  disposition  
o f the case by  the P an e l and  the suggestion  o f  reh earin g  en  
b an c for the U n ite d  S ta tes  as In terv en o r-A p p ellan t is h ereb y  
adopted by P la in tiff  by  re feren ce  p u rsu ant to R u le  28 (i) o f  the 
Fed eral R u le s  o f  A p p ella te  P ro ced u re .

S U M M A R Y  O F E R R O R S

A s set forth  in  P la in t if f  s P e titio n  for R e h e a r in g , the P an el 
decision in this case is rep lete  w ith  errors in d icativ e o f  a  fu n ­
d am ental m isread in g  o f  the record  ev id ence as set forth  in the 
briefs o f  b o th  sides su bm itted  to the co u rt. W h ile  all o f  these 
errors are im p o ssib le  to  detail in this p etition  for reh earin g , 
the C o u r t ’ s e rro rs an d  m issta tem en ts o f  the record  evidence 
are su m m arized  below .

1. T h e  P an e l erro n eo u sly  p laced  great re lian ce  on  C ity ­
wide g en eral p op u lation  figu res n o tw ith stan d in g  the fact 
that the m o re  p recise  re lev an t la b o r m ark et d ata  in  the 
record  shows th a t su bstan tia l p rop ortion s o f  the general 
pop ulation  are n ot q u alified  for the jo b  o f  police officer.

2. T h e  P an e l states its b e lie f  th at the relevant lab o r 
m ark et d ata  was com p iled  by the P la in tiffs w hen in fact all 
such d ata  w as p resen ted  by  the C ity . M r . F e ch te r  was the 
C ity ’s exp ert —  n ot the P la in tiffs .

3. T h e  P an e l rep eated ly  refers to a 5 0 %  or 3 0 %  p ro p or­
tion  o f  b lack  lieu ten an ts as b e in g  the ap p ro p riate  en d -goal, 
w hen the C ity ’ s exp ert at his m ost o p tim istic  c learly  co n ­
trad icts this fig u re. H e  d eterm in ed  that absen t d iscrim in a­
tion  the lieu ten an ts ran k s w ould be no m ore th an  2 5 %



56a

b la ck  as o f  J u n e ,  1 9 7 8 . T h e  P a n e l fails to ev en  m e n tio n  h is 
testim o n y  in  this reg ard .

4 . Ju d g e  M e r r it t  in  h is p artia l d issent states the co n stitu ­
tio n al stan d ard  as re q u ir in g  “ valid  fin d in gs c o n ce rn in g  the 
p ercen tag e  o f  m in o rity  m em b ers  w ho w ould h av e  b een  
em p loyed  by  the g o v ern m en ta l in stitu tion  in q u estio n  in 
the ab sen ce o f  d is c r im in a tio n .”  (S lip  O p , a t 4 5 ) . T h e  P an e l 
ig n o res th is stan d ard  a lo n g  w ith  the re co rd  ev id en ce  
d em o n stra tin g  this stan d ard  c learly  ca n n o t b e  m et.

5 . W h ile  com p letely  fa ilin g  to  m en tio n  M r . F e c h te r ’ s 
analysis o f  the lieu ten an ts ra n k s , the P an e l erro n eo u sly  
rep rod u ces a  tab le  d ealin g  w ith  the re lev an t la b o r m a rk et a t 
the en try  level and yet discusses it in  the co n te x t o f  the 
lieu ten an ts ran ks. In  fact, th is tab le  h as no b e a rin g  (S lip  
O p , at 2 8 ) to the arg u m en ts w hich p reced e it and follow  it.

6 . T h e  P an e l even  en ters  new  d a ta  in to  the record  (S lip  
O p , at 17) d ealing  w ith co m p ara tiv e  statistics at the en try  
level and the ran k  o f  serg ean t. G iv e n  an  8 0 %  h irin g  q u o ta  
an d  an  u n con tested  q u o ta  for p ro m o tio n  to the ra n k  o f  
serg ean t —  not at issue in th is case —  the d a ta  rep rod u ced  
is larg ely  im m a teria l. T h e  d ata  also d istorts the reco rd  by 
o m ittin g  the larg e n u m b ers  o f  b la ck  co m m a n d  officers 
above the ran k  o f  lieu ten an t.

7. T h e  P an e l erro n eou sly  a ttr ib u tes  a rg u m en ts to the 
P la in tiff  w hich w ere n ev er m ad e in the D istr ic t C o u rt o r in 
this C o u rt. A p p aren tly  co n fu sin g  this reco rd  w ith  the 
re lated  case o f  Detroit Police Officers Assoc, v  Young, in fra, the 
P an e l erroneou sly  states th a t the P la in tiffs  “ con ten d ed  that 
the re lev ant lab o r m ark et figu res w ere the figu res for the 
D e tro it  M e tro p o lita n  A re a , figu res w hich  w ould ju s t ify  a 
m u ch  low er p ercen tag e  o f  b lack s in the P o lice  D e p a rtm e n t 
th an  the figu res for the C ity  o f  D e tro it . ”  (S lip  O p  at 2 6 ). 
F u rth e r , the P an el accu ses P la in tiffs  o f  sh iftin g  grou n d s on



57a

appeal, n o tin g  th at “ A p p ellan ts no lo n g er con ten d  th at the 
M etro p o lita n  A re a  statistics are c o n tro llin g .”  ( Id ). In  fact, 
P la in tiffs n ev er m ad e an y  such assertion s, and  as noted  
above, did n ot even  in trod u ce any relev ant lab o r m ark et 

d ata  in to the record .

8 . T h e  P a n e l clearly  errs in  sta tin g  th at “ th ere  is no 
doubt that the in fere n ce  o f  in ten tio n a l d iscrim in atio n  w hich 
arises from  the severe sta tistica l d isp arity  is an  a ccu ra te  
o n e .”  (S lip  O p  at 16). In  fact, the find ings o f  the C ity ’s own 
expert show  a  re la tive ly  sm all d isp arity  o f  b lack s th an  w ould 
be exp ected  ab sen t d iscrim in atio n  at the tim e the q u o ta  was 
im p lem en ted . U n d e r  the C ity ’s m ost op tim istic  estim ate , 
absent d iscrim in atio n  the lieu ten an ts ranks w ould have 
been  no m o re  th an  1 8 %  b lack  in  1973  as com p ared  to the 
actual n u m b er o f  5 %  b lack  —  a  d ifference o f  on ly  13%  
assu m in g  a  ra ce -free  en v iro n m en t since 19 4 5 . T h e  sugges­
tion  by  the P an e l o f  a “ severe statistica l d isp arity ”  ignores 
the lab o r m ark et d ata  and  the analysis p resen ted  by the C ity  

itself.

9 . In  co n sid erin g  the a b o v e , one m u st con clu d e th at the 
P an el did not u n d erstan d  the d ifferen ce betw een  p op u la­
tion  or censu s figu res an d  la b o r m ark et figu res. In  fact, the 
P a n e l fa ils  to  a d e q u a te ly  d iscu ss  th e  s ta t is t ic a l d a ta  
presented  in  the b riefs o f  b o th  parties.

ARGUMENT AND AUTHORITIES

Plain tiffs su bm it th at the P an e l decision  in this case is e r ­
roneously  based  u pon  a m isread in g  o f the reco rd  evidence 
coupled w ith a b asic  m isco n cep tio n  o f  the ap p ro p riate  use o f  
statistics in em p lo y m en t d iscrim in atio n  cases. I h e  P an e l s 
m ost obviou s erro r  is its re lia n ce  on  g en eral p op u lation  figures 
n o tw ith stan d in g  reco rd  ev id en ce  d e m o n stra tin g  th a t the



58a

g en era l p op u lation  o f  the C ity  o f  D e tro it  is vastly  d ifferen t 
from  the actu a l pool o f  q u alified  jo b  ap p lican ts.

T h is  critica l e rro r  in d icates that the P an e l co m p lete ly  failed  
to  co m p reh en d  the n a tu re  o f  the re lev an t in q u iry  posed by  the 
lab or m arket analysis perform ed by  the C ity ’s ow n expert based 
on  those qualified  applicants w ho actu ally  applied for the jo b . 
T h is  goes to the h eart o f  the con stitu tion al stan d ard  articu lated  
by  Ju d g e  M e rr itt  in his p artial d issent: “ A n  ag en cy  com p eten t 
to m ake findings . . . m ust m ake valid  findings co n cern in g  the 
p e rce n ta g e  o f  m in o rity  m e m b e rs  w ho w ou ld  h av e  b e e n  
em ployed  by  the g overnm ental in stitu tion  in  q u estion  in  the 
ab sen ce o f d iscrim in a tio n .”  (S lip  O p . a t 4 5 ).

A s will b e  d em o n stra ted  b elow , the o p in io n  in  this case 
leads in ev itab ly  to the con clu sio n  th at the P a n e l did n ot u n d er­
stand  the d ifferen ce b etw een  p op u lation  or censu s figu res and 
la b o r  m ark et d ata . It  is su bm itted  th at th is e rro r  is so b a sic  —  
and  has such severe con seq u en ces for those d irectly  a ffected  —  
th at the qu estion s p resen ted  are ap p ro p ria te  for review  by  the 
full co u rt, sittin g  en banc.

A. T H E  P A N E L C L E A R L Y  E R R E D  IN  
R E L Y IN G  ON G E N E R A L  P O P U L A T IO N  
F IG U R E S  T H A T  IN C L U D E  S U B ST A N ­
T IA L  S E G M E N T S  O F T H E  P O P U L A ­
T IO N  W H O  C A N N O T O R  D O  N O T  W ISH  
T O  S E E K  E M P L O Y M E N T , O R  A R E 
O T H E R W IS E  N O T  Q U A L IF IE D  F O R  
E M P L O Y M E N T  AS P O L IC E  O F F IC E R  
O R  P O L IC E  L IE U T E N A N T

T h e  P an el in this case errs in  its sw eeping statem en t that 
“ the Su p rem e C o u rt has approved the use o f  racia l com p o si­
tion  com p arison s betw een em p loy ers’ w ork  forces and  the 
general area-w ide pop ulation  as p robativ e o f  d iscrim in ation  in



59a

em ploym ent d iscrim in ation  cases . . . ”  (S lip  O p . at 3 2 ). T o  the 
con trary , in both  cases cited  by  the P an el in support o f  this p ro ­
position the Su p rem e C o u rt has specifically w arned against the 
use o f  general p op u lation  figures w here the pop ulation  does not 
possess the qualifications for the jo b  in question . H azelw ood  
School District v United States, 433  U S  2 9 9 , 308  (1 9 7 7 ); In t ’l  
Brotherhood o f  Teamsters v United States, 431 U S  3 2 4 , 3 3 9  (1 9 7 7 ).

In  Team sters, supra, the C o u rt sp ecifically  noted  the lim ited  
p robative valu e o f  g en era l p op u lation  figu res w here there is 
evidence show ing th a t such  figu res are  not reflective o f  
qualified  jo b  ap p lican ts in  the re lev an t la b o r pool. 431 U S  at 
340 , n . 20 . S im ila rly , in  H azelw ood  School D istrict v U nited States, 
supra, the co u rt co m m en ted  on  the use o f g en eral p op u lation  
figures in the Team sters case as follow s:

‘ T n  Team sters, the co m p ariso n  betw een  the p ercentag e 
o f  n egroes on  the em p lo y er’s w ork force and  the p e rce n t­
age in the g en era l area-w id e p op u lation  w as h igh ly  p ro ­
bative b ecau se  the jo b  skill th ere  involved  —  the ab ility  to 
drive a tru ck  —  is one m an y  person s possess o r ca n  fairly  
readily  a cq u ire . W h e n  special q u alifica tio n s are req u ired  
to fill p articu lar jo b s , co m p ariso n s to the general pop u la­
tion (ra th e r  th an  to the sm aller group o f  ind iv iduals who 
possess the n ecessary  q u a lifica tio n s) m ay  h ave little p ro ­
bative va lu e."  4 3 3  U S  at 3 0 8 , n . 13 (em p h asis added).

In  H azelw ood , the S u p rem e C o u rt rem an d ed  w ith d irections 
to the low er cou rt to d eterm in e  the re lev ant lab o r m ark et. 
433 U S  at 3 1 3 . S u b seq u e n t to  the d ecision  in  H azelw ood , 
nu m erou s co u rts , in clu d in g  this co u rt, h ave con sisten tly  held 
that the sta tistica l co m p ariso n  m u st be w ith the re lev ant lab o r 
m arket and not the g en era l p op u lation , w hich inclu des people 
who are obviou sly  d isqu alified  from  em p loy m en t b ecau se o f  
age or o th er d isab ility , as well as p ersons that do not h ave the 
q u alifications for the p osition . See  Alexander v Aero L odge  
No. 735, 565  F  2d 1364  (6th  C ir , 1977 ); E E O C  v L oca l 14, Inter­
national Union o f  Operating Engineers, 553  F  2d 251 (2d  C ir , 1977).



In  Perham  v L a d d ,  4 3 6  F  Su p p  1101 (N .D . 111. 1 9 7 7 ), the 
D istr ic t  C o u rt re je c ted  statistics th a t did n ot co n stitu te  a  c o m ­
p arison  w ith  the re lev an t la b o r  m a rk et:

“ [T ]h e  P la in tiff  m u st, a t the very  le a st, m ak e  a c o m ­
p arison  betw een  the sexu al co m p o sitio n  o f  the te a ch in g  
s ta ff  o f  C h ica g o  state  and the sexu al co m p o sitio n  o f  the 
qu alified  teach er and ad m in istra tiv e  p op u lation  in the rele­
vant labor m a r k e t 4 3 6  F  Su p p  at 1106  (em p h asis  added).

In d e ed , co m m o n  sense teach es th a t it is in a p p ro p ria te  to 
b ase  an y  fin d in g  o f d iscrim in atio n  on  u n d ifferen tia ted  g en eral 
p op u lation  figu res w hich  do n o t in an y  w ay in d ica te  how  
m a n y  p ersons exist in th at p op u lation  w ith  the req u isite  q u a li­
fica tio n s for the jo b . F o r  ex a m p le , person s co n v icted  o f  crim e , 
d ru g  u sers, o r o th er em o tio n a lly  u n sta b le  in d iv id u als are  
c learly  n ot elig ib le  for em p lo y m en t as p o lice  o fficers or police 
lieu ten an ts . In  fact, the C ity ’s exp ert on  re lev an t la b o r 
m ark ets u n equ iv oca lly  testified  th a t it is essen tia l to d efin e the 
re lev an t la b o r m ark et in ord er to d eterm in e  an y  ra c ia l d isp ari­
ties in  the em p lo y er’s w ork force. H e  testified :

Q,. N ow , in  d eterm in in g  w h eth er an  e m p lo y e r’s w ork force 
a ccu ra te ly  reflects the av a ilab ility  o f  p erson s b y  ra ce , you  
w ould con sid er it essen tia l to  d efine re lev an t la b o r m a rk et, is 
th at you r testim on y ?

A . Y es.
Q,. N ow , in  this case , you have in  fact a ttem p ted  to  define 

the re lev an t la b o r  m a rk et, h ave you  not?
A . Y es.

Q,- A n d  is n ’t it tru e th at the re lev an t la b o r m a rk e t, based  
on  y ou r an alysis is not sy n on y m ou s w ith  the C ity  o f  D e tro it?  
A n d  by  th at I m ean  the p op u lation  o f  the C ity  o f  D e tro it?

A . Y es . T h a t ’s co rre ct.
Q,. In  fa c t, it w ould be erro n eo u s to  assu m e th at the re le ­

v an t la b o r  m ark et is the p op u lation  o f  the C ity  o f  D e tro it , 
w ould it n ot?



61a

A . Y e s , it w ould b e  erro n eo u s.
(A p p . 6 4 5 7 ) .

In  o th er w ords, the testim o n y  o f  the C ity ’s exp ert is co n sis­
tent w ith  ap p licab le  law  h old in g  th a t racia l d isp arities in  an  
em p lo y er’s w ork force m u st b e  ju d g e d  b y  referen ce  to the re le ­
vant lab o r m ark et fo r the p a rticu la r  jo b  in  q u estion . A s w ill be 
d em on strated  b elow , the P a n e l’s re lian ce  on  g en eral p op u la­
tion figu res is to ta lly  in ap p ro p ria te  an d  leads to a  c learly  

erroneous con clu sio n .

B . T H E  U SE  O F  G E N E R A L  P O P U L A T IO N  
F IG U R E S  H A S NO P R O B A T IV E  V A LU E 
ON T H E  Q U E S T IO N  O F  D IS C R IM IN A ­
T IO N  B E C A U SE  T H E  P O P U L A T IO N  IS  
U N ST A BLE AND HAS CH ANGED R A P ID ­
L Y  F R O M  P R E D O M IN A T E L Y  W H IT E  
T O  P R E D O M IN A T E L Y  B L A C K

T h e  d angers associated  w ith  the m isuse o f  g en eral p op u la­
tion  figures is n ow h ere m o re  ap p aren t th an  in  this case . T h e  
fallacy o f  th is ap p ro ach  is read ily  d em on strated  by  con sid erin g  
a hypothetical city w here the ra c ia l p ro p ortion s h ave ch an g ed  as 
rapidly as in  D e tro it  —  b u t w hich  has n ev er exp erien ced  any 
ra c ia l d is c r im in a t io n . A c c o rd in g  to  th e  C i t y ’ s e x p e r t , 
M r . F e ch te r , the la b o r pool in  the y ears 1 9 5 0 , 1960  and 1970 
was 1 2 %  b lack , 2 1 %  b lack  and  4 3 %  b lack . I f  officers w ere 
hired at the av erag e age o f 20  w ithou t regard  to race  (an d  at 
random  from  the q u alified  la b o r pool) th en  in  1980  the fifty- 
year old officers w ould  b e  1 2 %  b lack , the fo rty -y ear old o f­
ficers w ould b e  2 1 %  b lack , and  the th irty -y ea r old officers 
would b e  43 %  b lack . A  sim ilar p a ttern  w ould exist for all ages 
in betw een . G iv e n  th at the C ity  was 6 3 %  b lack  in 19 8 0 , this 
would (acco rd in g  to the C ity  and  this C o u rt) illu strate  a clear 
exam ple o f  d iscrim in a tio n  ag ain st b lacks desp ite the fact that 
the selection  o f  ap p lican ts in  this h y p oth etica l was at ran d om  
from  the la b o r pool.



A cco rd in g ly , by  b asin g  the 50/50 q u o ta  on  the ra c ia l c o m ­
p osition  o f  the g en eral p op u lation  as o f  1 9 7 4 , the C ity  is led 
in to  the absu rd  result noted  by  Ju d g e  M e r r it t  in  h is d issen t. 
T h a t  is, the 50/50 q u o ta  ap p ears d iscrim in a to ry  ag a in st b lacks 
w hen  one con sid ers th at the C ity  is now  6 3 %  b lack . In  o th er 
w ord s, the use o f  g en era l p op u lation  co m p ariso n s as the 
b e n ch m a rk  for d iscrim in atio n  leads in ev itab ly  to  the co n clu ­
sion  th at the on ly  a ccep tab le  ra tio  for p ro m o tio n  to the ra n k  o f  
lieu ten a n t is one w hich  varies each  y ear a cco rd in g  to the latest 
p op u lation  figures.

T h e  p ro b lem  h ere clearly  lies in  the fact th at D e tr o it ’s p op u ­
la tio n  is h igh ly  u n stab le  by  race . W ith  a stab le  p op u lation  one 
w ou ld  n orm ally  exp ect the em p lo y er’ s w ork  force  to reflect th at 
p op u lation . H ow ev er, in an  u n stab le  and rap id ly  ch a n g in g  
p op u lation  this is c learly  not tru e . F o r  ex am p le , suppose that 
th e  p op u lation  o f  D e tro it co n tin u es to in crease  at the cu rren t 
ra te  u n til it is 9 9 %  b lack . Su p p ose fu rth er th a t th is h ap p en ed  
in  th e  n ex t ten  y ears; an d  th at d u rin g  th is ten  y ears the D e ­
p a rtm e n t prom oted  n oth in g  b u t b lack s to the ra n k  o f  lie u te n ­
a n t. Q u ery : how  long  w ould it take for the ran k s o f  lieu ten a n t 
and  above to reflect the g en era l b lack  p op u lation  o f  9 9 %  ? 
C le a r ly , such a resu lt w ould n ot p erta in  u n til v irtu a lly  a ll  o f  
the cu rren t m a jo rity  w hite c a re e r  officers reach ed  re tirem en t 
ag e . A ssu m in g  th at the age o f  w h ite  co m m a n d  o fficers 
averages th irty -fiv e , it w ould tak e an  ad d itio n al 2 5 -3 0  years 
b efo re  the co m m an d  officers reflected  the 99  %  b la ck  g en era l 
p op u lation .

It  seem s obviou s that a police force o f  m ostly  th irty  y ear 
c a re e r  officers can n o t possib ly  reflect a rap id ly  ch an g in g  
p op u lation  that w ent from  11 %  b lack  in 19 5 0  to 63  %  b lack  in 
19 8 0 . In  o th er w ords, D e tr o it ’s b lack  p op u lation  in creased  by 
ov er 5 0 0 %  in the re lative ly  sh ort span  o f  3 0  y ears -— a tim e- 
span that ju s t  hap p ens to co in cid e w ith the av erag e  c a re e r  o f  a 
D e tro it  po lice  lieu ten an t.



In  su m m ary , the record  shows the general pop ulation  figures 
o f the C ity  o f  D e tro it  are  b u t a  m ere  shadow  o f  the re lev ant 
lab or m ark et o f  those p erson s possessing-the n ecessary  q u a lifi­
cations for the jo b . F u rth e rm o re , the la b o r m ark et o f  D e tro it 
is itse lf not stab le , b u t is ch a n g in g  as is the p op u lation . T h u s  at 
any p oin t in  tim e , in  the ab sen ce  o f  an y  d iscrim in atio n  w h at­
soever, the p ro p o rtio n  o f  b lack s at the ran k  o f lieu ten an t will 
reflect p rio r p a ttern s in  the la b o r  m ark et.

T h e  C ity ’ s exp ert, M r . F e c h te r , took this in to  a cco u n t in 
his com p u tation s o f  the n u m b e r o f  b lack  lieu ten an ts exp ected  
u nder an  assu m p tio n  o f  ra ce -free  h irin g  and  p ro m o tio n  going 
back  to 19 4 5 . H e  sp ecifically  fou nd that in  the ab sen ce o f 
d iscrim in ation  the lieu ten an ts ran k s should have b een  18%  
black  in 1973 and  2 5 %  b lack  as o f  J u n e ,  19 7 8 . T h e se  find ings 
have b een  ig n ored  ra th er th an  reb u tted .

F in a lly , the fact th at the C ity  now  req u ires em ployees to be 
residents o f  D e tro it  h as n o  affect on  these com p u tation s since 
the re lev an t la b o r m a rk et for lieu ten an t is based  on  years 
w hich preceded  the im p o sition  o f  th is p rereq u isite . T h u s  it is 
clear th at the D istr ic t C o u rt an d  the P an e l im p rop erly  a c­
cepted the use o f  C ity -w id e p op u lation  figu res.

C . T H E  P A N E L  M IS R E A D  T H E  L A B O R  
M A R K E T  A N A L Y SIS  O F  T H E  C I T Y ’S 
E X P E R T  SH O W IN G  T H A T  IN T H E  A B ­
S E N C E  O F  D IS C R IM IN A T IO N  T H E  
L IE U T E N A N T S  R A N K S SH O U L D  O N L Y  
B E  2 5 %  B L A C K  AS O F  JU N E , 1978

In  his p artia l d issen t, Ju d g e  M e r r it t  clearly  states the stan ­
dards w hich  m u st be m et in  ord er to affirm  a  v o lu n tary  a ffirm ­
ative action  plan  such  as the D e tro it p lan . H e states:

“ (1 ) Procedural standard  —  A fter ra tio n a l and d elib era ­
tive co n sid era tio n , a g ov ern m en ta l ag en cy  com p eten t to



64a

m ak e  fin d in gs co n cern in g  ra c ia l d iscr im in a tio n  . . . m u st 
m ak e valid  find ings co n ce rn in g  the p erce n ta g e  o f  m in o ri­
ty  m em b ers  w ho w ould h av e  b een  em p loy ed  b y  the 
g o v ern m en ta l in stitu tio n  in  q u estio n  in  th e  ab sen ce  o f 
d iscrim in atio n .

(2 )  Substantive S tandard  —  T h e s e  fin d in g s . . . m u st 
fully ju s tify  the p ercen tag e  o f  m in o rity  m em b ers  to  be 
given  p referen ce . . . and  the rem ed y  in co rp o ra ted  in  the 
affirm ativ e  action  p lan  m u st n ot u nd u ly  b u rd en  o r h a rm  
in n o cen t p arties in  light o f  o th er av a ilab le  re m e d ie s .”  
(S lip  O p . at 4 5 ).

U n d e r  this p ro ced u ral stan d ard , the C ity  shou ld  h av e b een  
req u ired  to  p erfo rm  a  la b o r m ark et an alysis p rio r to  its ad o p ­
tio n  o f  the p ro m o tio n al q u o ta  for the ra n k  o f  lie u te n a n t, for 
th at is the only w ay o f d eterm in in g  the “ p ercen tag e o f  m in ority  
m em b ers who w ould have been  em ployed  by  the govern m en tal 
in stitu tion  in question in the ab sen ce o f  d iscr im in a tio n .”

T h is  standard  should b e  con trasted  to the “ reaso n ab len ess” 
stan d ard  set forth  by  Ju d g e  Jo n e s :

“ T h e  B o a rd  d id  not employ  an  eco n o m ic  o r  a sta tistica l 
e x p e rt in  1 9 7 4 -7 5  to  d e te rm in e  th e  re le v a n t la b o r  
m ark ets du rin g  the period  o f  d iscrim in a tio n . It  d id  not try 
to d eterm in e the p recise  n u m b e r o f  lieu ten a n ts  who 
w ould have b een  h ired  in  the ab sen ce  o f  d iscrim in a tio n .
I t  sim ply conclu d ed  that m ost police o fficers in  the p ast 
had  com e from  w ith in  the C ity  and  th at the C ity  w as now 
ap p ro x im ately  5 0 %  b la c k .”  (S lip  O p  at 2 5 ) (em p h asis 
ad d ed ).

C le a rly , the stan d ard  applied  by  Ju d g e  J o n e s  falls far short 
o f  the co n stitu tio n al stan d ard  stated  by  J u d g e  M e r r it t  in  his 
p artia l d issent. H ow  then  can  Ju d g e  M e r r it t  assert as he does 
th a t  “ in  lig h t o f  th e  1 9 8 0  c e n su s  f ig u r e s  . . .  th e  p la n  
d iscrim in ates ag ain st b la c k s .”  (S lip  O p  at 4 4 ). L ik ew ise , how  
can  Ju d g e  Jo n e s  assert th at “ the b ro ad  based  a tta ck  on  the use



65a

o f city-w ide p o p u la tio n  figu res is u n su p p o rta b le” , w hile at the 
sam e tim e he n otes th a t “ this co u rt h as sp ecifica lly  held  th at in 
the co n tex t o f  ch a llen g es to a ffirm ativ e  actio n , a goal w hich  
seeks the sam e ra c ia l p ro p o rtio n  a m o n g  em ployees as in  the 
labor fo rce  will o rd in arily  b e  re a s o n a b le .”  (S lip  O p  at 32 ).

In  con sid erin g  the ab o v e , on e m u st con clu d e th a t the P an e l 
sim ply does n ot u n d erstan d  the d ifferen ce betw een  pop u lation  
or census figu res an d  la b o r  m ark et figu res. F u rth e rm o re , it is 
evident that the cou rt has m isread  the record . T h e  Panel clearly  
states its b e lie f  th at M r . F e c h te r  w as P la in t if f s  exp ert in  that 
he p e rfo rm e d  la b o r  m a rk e t  a n a ly s is  fo r  th e  P la in t if fs .*  
M r. F e ch te r  w as o f  co u rse  the C ity ’s exp ert. P la in t if fs  rep ly 
b rie f c learly  m en tio n s h im  as su ch  and  goes in to  con sid erable 
detail on  his an aly sis. (P la in t if f s  R e p ly  B r ie f, p. 4 ).

In  fact, the P la in tiffs  did n ot com p ile  an y  la b o r  m ark et d ata  
w h a tso e v e r , b u t m e re ly  u sed  th e  la b o r  m a rk e t  fig u re  
developed by the C ity  an d  M r . F e c h te r  “ w ith  a lot o f  b lood , 
sweat and  te a r s .”  (A p p . 8 8 5 ) . P la in t if f s  ad ju stm en ts o f  this 
data follow ed p recisely  the m eth od ology  used by M r . F ech ter. 
B u t the P an e l ap p ears to ig n o re  P la in t if f  s rep ly  b r ie f  and  does 
not even deign to co m m en t on  the p rin cip a l p oints o f  the b rie f.

In  p articu la r, the P an e l com p letely  ign ores the fact that 
M r . F e ch te r  did n ot co u n t the n u m b e r o f b lacks w ho had m ade 
it to the ran k  o f  lieu ten a n t. In stead  he only  cou nted  the actu al 
n u m b er o f  b lack s rem aining  a t the ra n k  o f  lieu ten an t for each  o f 
the two y ears in  q u estio n . G iv e n  the obviou s in ten tio n  o f  the 
C ity  to p ro m o te  b lack s as rap id ly  as possib le , it is in ev itab le  
that b lacks w ould re m a in  as lieu ten an ts for only  a  few years

* Judge Jones states that “ data to which the Appellants refer is that of 
their own statistical expert, M r. Alan Fechter.” (Slip Op at 27). This is 
not only wrong, but the entire context of the opinion makes it clear that 
this misperception affected the proper evaluation of this unrebutted 
evidence.



66a

an d  w ould b e  q u ick ly  p ro m o ted  to  In sp e cto r  and  ab o v e . (S e e  
P la in t if f  s R e p ly  B rie f, pp. 4 -8 ) . T h e  effect o f  th is is q u ite  o b ­
v iou s on ce one th inks o f  it, b u t the P an e l to ta lly  d isreg ard s it 
and  m akes no co m m en t w h atsoev er. N eith er  does the P an e l 
m en tio n  the fact that u sin g  the C ity ’s ow n la b o r m ark et 
an alysis and  m eth od olo g y , th e re  is show n to be an  excess o f  
tw en ty-five (2 5 ) b lack  co m m an d  officers in  1979  th an  on e 
w ould exp ect to find given  ra ce -fre e  h ir in g  an d  p ro m o tio n s 
since 1945 . T h e  three  ap p end ixes in  this reg ard  are  a ttach ed  
h ereto  for the co n v en ien ce  o f  the C o u rt.

In stead  o f  focu sin g  u pon  the u n re b u tted  sta tistica l ev id en ce 
o f  the C ity ’s ow n exp ert, the P an e l rep eated ly  refers to  a  5 0 %  
or 3 0 %  p rop ortion  o f  b lack  lieu ten an ts  as b e in g  ap p ro p ria te , 
w hen the C ity ’s ow n exp ert at h is m ost o p tim istic  testified  to 
the co n trary . A cco rd in g  to M r . F e c h te r ’s an aly sis o f  the lieu ­
ten an ts ran k s, absen t d iscrim in atio n  th e re  w ould h ave b een  
43  b lack  lieu ten an ts in  1973 ou t o f  a  to ta l o f  2 3 2  lieu ten a n ts . 
(A p p en d ix  1 7 6 3 ). In  o th er w ords, assu m in g  a ra ce -free  en v i­
ro n m en t since 19 4 5 , M r . F e ch te r  testified  th at 1 8 %  o f  the 
lieu ten an ts in  1973 should h ave b een  b lack .

T h is  figu re o f  1 8 %  co n trasts  sharp ly  w ith  the 5 0 %  q u o ta  
adopted  the very  n ext y ear by  the B o a rd  o f  P o lice  C o m m is­
sion ers. It  also co n trasts  sharp ly  w ith  the 30  %  fig u re  in ven ted  
by the P an e l.

F u rth erm o re , as d etailed  in  P la in t if f  s rep ly b rie f, w hen  one 
con sid ers total co m m an d  officers a t the ran k  o f  L ie u te n a n t or 
above, the actu al n u m b er o f  b lack  co m m an d  officers in  1973 
w as 23 out o f  a  total o f  3 2 5 . T h is  is a  ra tio  o f  7 % ; w hile the 
h y p oth etica l n u m b er based  on  M r . F e c h te r ’s ow n d ata  w as 40  
ou t o f  3 2 5 , a ra tio  o f  1 2 %  . T h e  d ifferen ce is on ly  17 officers. 
In  fact, the d ifferen ce is a lm o st en tire ly  m ad e up by  the u n c o n ­
tested  p ro m o tion  o f  11 b lack  o fficers in  19 7 4  p rio r to the in sti­
tu tio n  o f  this actio n .



67a

T h e  P a n e l’s su ggestion  th a t ab sen t d iscrim in atio n  the 
lieu ten an ts ran k s w ould h ave b een  5 0 %  b lack  in 19 7 4  is 
patently  u n reaso n ab le  an d  to ta lly  ig n ores the la b o r m ark et 
data and the testim o n y  o f  the C ity ’s ow n exp ert. A s n oted , 
even M r . F e c h te r ’s o p tim istic  v iew  (w hich  ignores b lack  o ffi­
cers above the ran k  o f  lieu ten an t) posits a  hypothetical n u m b er 
o flieu ten an ts o f  4 3 , a ratio  o f  1 8 % . T h u s any suggestion by the 
Panel that the p ercen tag e  o f  b la ck  lieu ten an ts should be 5 0 %  
or even 3 0 %  is to ta lly  in co n sisten t w ith the record  ev id en ce.

In  ad d ition  to  focu sin g  on  1 9 7 3 , M r . F e ch te r  did a sim ilar 
analysis to d eterm in e  i f  th ere  w as an y  d isp arity  betw een  the 
actual and  exp ected  n u m b e r o fl ie u te n a n ts  as o f  J u n e ,  1978 . 
M r. F ech ter testified  th at his analysis show ed that 49  out o f  
194 o f the lieu ten an ts in  1978  should have b een  b lack . (A pp. 
6 4 4 7 , 1 7 6 4 ). In  o th er w ords, ab sen t d iscrim in atio n  the lie u ­
tenants ran ks should  h ave b een  2 5 %  b lack  as o f  J u n e ,  1978 . 
In  fact, th ere  w ere only  slightly  few er, 41 ou t o f  a total o f  194 , 
or 2 1 % .*

M r. F e ch te r  testified  in  th is reg ard  th at the d ifferen ce b e ­
tw een the exp ected  and  actu al n u m b er o f  b lack  lieu ten an ts in 
1978 w as n eg lig ib le , i.e . w as not statistica lly  sig n ifican t. (A pp. 
6534 ). N on eth eless, the D istr ic t  C o u rt erroneou sly  relied  on  
this d iffe re n ce  as b e in g  a  re a l d iffe re n ce , ev en  th o u g h  
M r. F e ch te r  testified  th a t it w as n ot.

It m ust be stressed that the P an e l decision com pletely  ignores 
these u n reb u tted  find ings by  the C ity ’s ow n exp ert. In stead , 
the P an e l m erely  states th at: “ E v e n  the use o f  a guideline 
w hich exceed s the p erce n tag e  o f  m in o rities  in  the p op u lation  
would be ju s tif ia b le  as a tem p o rary  m easu re  for a tta in in g  an 
appropriate e n d g o a l.”  (S lip  O p  at 3 0 ). O n e  cou ld  well ask

* This 21 % figure does not include 7 additional black female lieutenants. 
(App. 1454).



68a

how  a goal w hich  leads to a m u ch  h ig h er p ro p o rtio n  o f  b lack s 
th an  in  the la b o r m ark et can  p ossib ly  b e  con sid ered  “ a p p ro ­
p r ia te ” . S u ch  an  a rg u m en t flies in  the face o f  M r . F e c h te r ’s 
u n re b u tted  fin d in g  th at all p rio r d iscrim in a tio n  h ad  b een  fully 
rem ed ied  at the lieu ten an ts ran k s no la te r  than  J u n e  o f 1978 .

W ith o u t m e n tio n in g  th ese  u n re b u tte d  fin d in g s b y  the 
C ity ’s ow n ex p e rt, the P an e l in stead  a tte m p ts  to evade them  
by  sta tin g  th at “ we do not believe th at m arg in a lly  in crea sin g  
the p erce n tag e  o f  b lack  lieu ten an ts ab ov e the figu re th a t w ould 
ex ist h ad  h ir in g  b een  n o n d iscrim in a to ry  is an  u n re a so n a b le  
rem ed y  for red ressing  this w ron g. ”  (S lip  O p  at 3 1 ). T h e  P a n e l 
a ttem p ts to b o lster its a rg u m en t in this reg ard  by  sta tin g  th at:

“ T h e  19 7 4  affirm ativ e  ac tio n  p lan  w as d ed icated  to 
red ressing  all deleteriou s effects o f  the D e p a r tm e n t’s 
p rio r p ractices. T h e  red ress o f  th is in ju ry  to the b lack  
p op u lation  as a w hole ju s tif ie s  a p lan  w hich  goes b ey o n d  
th e  3 0 %  w ork force  lim ita tio n  w hich  A p p ellan ts im ply  
m ay  have b een  a p p ro p ria te .”  (S lip  O p  at 3 1 ).

S ig n ifican tly , the P an e l does n ot state w hat legal au th o rity  
ju s tif ie s  the red ressing  o f  an y  in ju rie s  to  b la ck  citizen s by  a lte r ­
in g  an  otherw ise racia lly  u n b iased  p ro m o tio n  system . T h is  
goes fa r  b ey on d  the stan d ard  o f  co n stitu tio n a lity  stated  by 
Ju d g e  M e rr itt.

M o re o v e r , the C o u r t ’s th eo ry  o f  red ressin g  an y  and  all 
p rio r in ju ries to b lack  c itizen s to ta lly  ig n o res the rem ed ia l 
efforts in stitu ted  by the D e p a rtm e n t th ro u g h  the use o f  an  
8 0  %  h irin g  q u o ta  and  a 5 0 %  p ro m o tio n a l q u o ta  to the ra n k  o f  
serg ean t. In  o th er w ords, instead  o f  focu sin g  on  the re lev an t 
la b o r  m ark et statistics at the lieu ten a n ts  ra n k s , the P anel 
p resen ts itse lf w ith the fa r  easier task  o f  g en era liz in g  to  the 
D e p a rtm e n t as a  w hole. T h is  case does n ot deal w ith  b lack  
p olice  o fficers g en era lly , bu t ra th e r  w ith  a p ro m o tio n a l q u o ta  
to the ran k  o f  lieu ten a n t only.



69a

F in a lly , it is sim ply  lu d icro u s to  say th at w hite can d id ates 
have equ al access to p ro m o tio n  (S lip  O p . at 2 1 ) w hen a 50/50 
qu ota is im p osed  on  a p ro m o tio n a l system  th at in itse lf has an 
adverse im p act on w hite p ro m o tio n a l ca n d id a te s .*  T h e  fact 
that there w ere m o re  w hite lieu ten an ts  th an  b lack  lieu ten an ts 
in 1974  w as due p rim arily  to the fact th at b lack s in  D e tro it 
trad itionally  rep resen ted  a sm all p ortion  o f  the la b o r pool. In  
1945 this p erce n tag e  w as com p u ted  to b e  7 .8  % . (A p p . 1761 ). 
B y  19 6 5 , w hen th e  you n g est 1973  lieu ten an t w as h ired , the 
relevant la b o r pool w as on ly  2 5 %  b lack . B ecau se  qualified  
blacks (as d eterm in ed  by  the C ity , e .g . w ith a  h igh  school 
ed u cation ), rep resen ted  a  sm all p o rtio n  o f  the la b o r pool in 
D etro it, it w as in ev itab le  th at th ey  should rep resen t a  sm all 
proportion  o f  police  o fficers and  lieu ten a n ts , regard less o f  
w hether there w as an y  d iscrim in atio n  in  h ir in g  or p ro m o tion . 
I f  the sm all p ro p o rtio n  o f  q u alified  b lack s rep resen ted  dis­
crim in atio n , it w as d iscrim in atio n  in society  at la rg e , not in 
the police force . T h is  can n o t ju s tify  a racia l q u o ta . University o f  
California Regents v  B akke, 4 3 8  U S  2 6 5  (1 9 7 8 ).

* Whereas the 1973 promotional exam was racially neutral, experts for 
both sides agreed that the 1974 and 1976 promotional exams had a 
statistically significant adverse impact against w hite candidates even prior 
to the imposition of the racial quota. (App. 136-38). Likewise, the 1977 
written exam favored the black candidates with a 58% passing rate as 
compared with a 48% passing rate for white candidates. (App. 106-07).



70a

C O N C L U SIO N  AND R E L IE F  R E Q U E S T E D

F o r the foreg o in g  reason s, P la in tiff/ A p p ellan t resp ectfu lly  
req u ests that the su ggestion  for a reh ea rin g  en  b a n c  b e  
g ran ted  and  the case be restored  on the d ocket as a p en d in g
appeal.

R esp ectfu lly  su b m itted , 
R a m sd ell , O ade & F eldman

B y : /s/ K . P reston  O a d e , J r .

K . P re sto n  O a d e , J r .
(P 2 8 5 0 6 )

A tto rn ey  for
P lain tiffs/ A p p ellan ts 

2 5 1 3 0  S o u th fie ld , S te . 100 
So u th fie ld , M I  4 8 0 7 5  
5 5 2 -9 4 0 0

D ated : M a y  2 , 1983



71a

M A L E  P R O M O T IO N S  B Y  R A C E  1 9 7 4 -7 8

A PP EN D IX  ONE

Date Promoted Number Promoted

O c to b e r  1 9 7 4 ................. 11 B / M * 
11 W /M

N o v em b er 1975  . . . . 10 B / M *  
10 W /M

F e b ru a ry  1 9 7 6 .............. 5 B / M * 
5 W /M

D e ce m b e r  19 7 6  ........... 16 B / M * 
16 W /M

J u l y  1977  ......................... . 7 B / M **  
7 W /M

N o v em b er 1977  . . . . 14 B / M **  
14 W /M

Ja n u a r y  1 9 7 8 ................. 14 B / M ** 
14 W /M

77 B/M  
77 W /M

* Source = Exhibit 165(b)

** Source = Exhibit 167(b)

D oes n ot in clu d e p ro m o tion s in 1979  a fter the trial.



72a

Com parison of R acial Com position of 
Com m and Officers, Actual And H ypothetical 

(In  A R ace-Free Environ m en t), 1979*

APPEN DIX TWO

(i) (2 ) (3) (4)
Actual

Year of 
Appointment

# Command Off. 
(work force)

% Nonwhite 
(Labor pool) Hypothetical

Nonwb 
(work fc

1 9 4 5 - 1 9 5 3 * * 56 1 0 .4 5 .8 10
1954 33 1 3 .6 4 .5 1
1955 30 1 4 .2 4 .5 5

1956 25 1 4 .9 3 .7 9
1957 — 1 5 .5 1.1 0
1958 0 1 6 .2 0.0 0

1959 5 1 6 .8 0 .8 1
1960 6 1 7 .5 1.0 0
1961 17 19.1 3 .2 4

1962 20 2 0 .7 4 .1 3
1963 12 2 2 .3 2 .7 4
1964 7 2 3 .9 1 .7 2
1965 10 2 5 .5 2 .5 5
1966 8 2 7 .1 2 .2 7
1967 8 2 8 .8 2 .3 7
1968 10 3 0 .4 3 .0 8
1969 11 3 2 .0 3 .5 9
1970 4 3 3 .6 1 .3 2
1971 2 3 5 .2 0 .7 0

T O T A L : 271 4 8 .6 74

* Command officers included lieutenants, inspectors, commanders, 
deputy chiefs and chief.

** Median year (1949) for period 1945-53.
Sources: (1) Exhibit 233

(2) Exhibit 230, Table D-5
(3) -  (1) x (2)
(4) Exhibit 233



73a

A P P E N D IX  T H R E E  
C om parison o f R acia l C om position of 

C om m and O fficers, A ctual And H ypothetical 
( In  A R ace-Free  E n v iro n m en t), 1973*

( i) (2) (3) (4)
Year of # Command Off. % Non white
pointment (work force) (labor pool) Hypothetical Actual

1945 4 7 .8 .4
1946 6 8 .4 .5
1947 15 9 .1 1 .4
1948 14 9 .7 1 .4
1949 47 1 0 .3 4 .8
1950 37 1 1 . 0 4 .1
1951 39 1 1 .7 4 .6
1952 30 1 2 .3 3 .7
1953 25 1 2 .9 3 .2
1954 30 1 3 .6 4 .1
1955 29 1 4 .2 4 .1
1956 29 1 4 .9 4 .3
1957 4 1 5 .5 . 6
1958 0 1 6 .2 0
1959 2 1 6 .8 .3
1960 4 1 7 .5 .7
1961 3 19.1 . 6
1962 5 2 0 .7 1.0
1963 0 2 2 .3 0
1964 1 2 3 .9 .2
1965 1 2 5 .5 .3

325 4 0 .3  23
+  11* *

_______________  34

* Command officers includes lieutenants, inspectors, commanders, 
deputy chiefs and chief.

Sources: (1) Exhibit 230, Table F; Exhibit 53
(2) Exhibit 230, Table F, column 1
(3) -  (1) x (2)/100
(4) Exhibit 53, as of June, 1974

Blacks promoted to lieutenant in October, 1974.



74a

L in e a r  In te r p o la t io n  F ig u r e  O f  B la c k  C o m m a n d  O ff ic e r s  
S h o w in g  W h e n  T h e  N u m b e r  E x p e c te d  I n  A H y p o th e t ic a l  

R a c e -F r e e  E n v ir o n m e n t  E q u a le d  T h e  A c tu a l N u m b e r .

(F r o m  a  s h o r tfa ll o f  1 7  in  1 9 7 4  to  a n  e x c e s s  o f  2 5  in  1 9 7 9 )

A PP EN D IX  FOUR



75a

IN  T H E  U N I T E D  S T A T E S  C O U R T  O F  A P P E A L S  
F O R  T H E  S I X T H  C I R C U I T

N o. 8 0 - 1 8 3 7

H anson B ratton , et al,
Plaintiffs-A ppellants,

-and-

U nited  S ta tes o f A m erica ,
A pplicant f o r  Intervention,

-vs-

T h e  C it y  of D e t r o it , M ichigan , et al, 
Defendants-Appellees,

-and-

G uardians of M ich ig an , et al,
Intervening D efendants-Appellees.

P R O O F  O F  S E R V I C E  

S T A T E  O F  M IC H IG A N )

ss.
C O U N T Y  O F  O A K L A N D )

K . P resto n  O a d e , J r . ,  b e in g  first duly sw orn, deposes and
says that on  t h e _____ day o f  M a y , 1 9 8 3 , he did in  fact m ail a
copy o f  A ppellants^ P e titio n  for R e h e a r in g  and Su g g estion  o f



76a

R e h e a r in g  E n  B a n c  to : O . P e te r  S h erw o o d , S u ite  2 0 3 0 , 10 
C o lu m b u s C irc le , N ew  Y o rk , N ew  Y o rk , 1 0 0 1 9 ; W a rre n  J .  
B e n n ia , 3 6  W e st 44 th  S t . ,  S u ite  5 0 0 , N ew  Y o rk , N ew  Y o rk  
1 0 0 3 6 ; an d  to C h a rle s  J .  C o o p e r , D e p u ty  A ssistan t A tto rn ey  
G e n e ra l, D e p a rtm e n t o f  J u s t ic e , R o o m  5 6 3 9 , W a sh in g to n ,
D .C . 2 0 5 3 0 .

/s/ K . P reston  O a d e , J r .

K . P re sto n  O a d e , J r .

S u b scrib ed  an d  sw orn to  b e ­
fore m e th is _____ day o f  M a y ,
1983 .

/s/ C a th erin e  L eon

C a th e r in e  L eo n  
N o tary  P u b lic , W a y n e  
C o u n ty , M ic h ig a n  
M y  C o m m issio n  E x p ires  
J u n e  2 3 , 1986



77a

FOR PUBLICATION

UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS 
FOR THE SIXTH CIRCUIT

(F ile d  J u n e  3 , 1983)

H anson B ratton , et a l.,
Plaintiffs-A ppellants,

v.

T he C ity  of D e t r o it , M ich ig an , N o . 8 0 -1 8 3 7
Defendants-Appellees,

and

G uardians of M ich ig an , et a l.,
Internen ing D efendants-Appellees.

ORDER

B E F O R E : M E R R I T T  an d  J O N E S ,  C ircu it Ju d g e s , and 
C E L E B R E Z Z E , S e n io r  C ircu it Ju d g e .

T h e  ap pellants h ave p etition ed  this C o u rt for a reh earin g  en 
banc in the ab o v e-cap tio n ed  case. A  m a jo rity  o f  the C o u rt not 
having favored  such a reh earin g , that p etition  is d e n ie d .1

The United States Government has requested the right to submit an 
amicus curiae brief in support of the appellant’s petition for rehearing en 
banc, In light of the fact that that request was received after a majority of 
the full court had chosen not to favor an en banc rehearing and after the 
original panel had unanimously agreed to amend the initial disposition of 
this case, the Government’s request is now moot.



78a

T h e  p an el has recon sid ered  its in itia l p ositio n , h ow ever, 
an d  has d eterm in ed  that S e c tio n  I V C  o f  the o p in io n  m u st be 
w ithd raw n. U p o n  fu rth er re flectio n , the p an el m a jo r ity  has 
d eterm in ed  th at the fears exp ressed  in p arag rap h  th ree  o f  that 
sectio n  and  in  S e ctio n  I o f  the d issent ca n n o t be ad eq u ately  
allayed  by an  attem p t to lim it the im p act o f  the d istrict c o u rt ’ s 
fin al ord er. ‘ ‘ S in ce  we do not now  hold  th at the b ou n d s o f  co n ­
stitu tion ally  perm issible a ctio n  are co ex isten t w ith  w hat a 
g ov ern m en ta l em p loy er m ay be co n stitu tio n a lly  required  to 
d o ”  (slip  op. a t 3 8 ) , we believe that the d istrict c o u r t ’ s in co r­
p o ra tio n  o f  the p lan  in to  a fin al d ecree w as in ap p ro p ria te  and 
th a t ou r in itia l a ttem p t to n arrow ly  co n stru e  the ord er in su ffi­
c ien tly  rem ed ied  that im p rop riety . U p o n  co n sid era tio n , we 
ag ree  that in  the con tex t o f  ju d ic ia l review  o f  a voluntary a ffir­
m ativ e  actio n  p lan , the body ad op tin g  th at p lan  m u st rem ain  
the “ front line a c to r”  p rim arily  resp on sib le  for the p la n ’s 
o p era tio n . (S lip  op. at 4 4 .)

A cco rd in g ly , the p anel has ch osen  to ad op t the re co m m e n ­
d ation  o f the d issent, v aca tin g  the final o rd er o f  the d istrict 
c o u rt2 and  rem an d in g  this cau se for fu rth er co n sid era tio n  in 
lig h t o f  the 1980  censu s. (S lip  op . at 4 4 .)

E N T E R E D  B Y  O R D E R  O F  T H E  
C O U R T

/s/ J ohn P. H ehman 

C le rk

2 B a k er  v. City o f  D etroit, 504 F.2d 841 (E.D . Mich. 1980).



79a

UN ITED  STATES COURT OF APPEALS 
FOR T H E  S I X T H  C I R C U I T  

(F iled  A u gu st 4 , 1983 )

H anson B ratto n , et a l.,
P laintiffs-A ppellants,

v.

C ity  of D e t r o it , et a l.,
D efendants-Appellees

and

G uardians of M ich ig a n , et a l.,
Intervening D efendants-Appellees

N o. 8 0 -1 8 3 7

O R D E R

T h e  J u n e  3 , 1983  o rd er o f  the cou rt d en yin g  the p etition  for 
reh earin g  en banc is h ereb y  su p p lem en ted  w ith the d issenting  
opinion o f  C irc u it  Ju d g e  W ellfo rd , as follow s:

“ W E L L F O R D , C irc u it  Ju d g e , d issenting . I  respectfully  
dissent from  the d en ial o f  reh ea rin g  en banc becau se I believe 
that the d istrict co u rt, in  ap p ro vin g  the a ffirm ativ e  action  p ro ­
gram  in  q u e stio n , in a p p ro p ria te ly  co n sid ered  th e  rac ia l 
breakdow n o f  the D e tro it  p op u lation  as a w hole instead  o f  the 
racial breakd ow n  o f  the ap p licab le  qualified  lab o r pool. T h e  
correct test in d e term in in g  w h eth er a m in o rity  is p ro p o r­
tionately  rep resen ted  in a p a rticu la r  occu p ation  is to com p are 
the p ercen tag e o f  the o c c u p a tio n ’s m in o rity  m em b ers to the 
percentage o f  the e lig ib le  and qu alified  w orkers who b elon g  to 
that m in o rity  grou p . T h e  S u p rem e C o u rt has cau tion ed  
against u tiliz in g  g en era l p op u lation  statistics w h ere, as h ere , 
only a lim ited  seg m en t o f  the p op u lation  qualifies for the p osi­
tion  in q u estion . See H azelw ood  School D isctnct v. United States,



80a

4 3 3  U .S .  2 9 9 , 3 0 8  (1 9 7 7 )  an d  I n ’tl. Brotherhood o f  Team sters v. 
U .S ., 431 U .S .  3 2 4 , 3 3 9  (1 9 7 7 ) . A t th e  sam e tim e  it w as, 
u n d er the c ircu m sta n ce s , ap p ro p ria te  th a t an  ad ju stm en t 
sh o u ld  h a v e  b e e n  m a d e  to ta k e  a c c o u n t  o f  a n y  p r io r  
d iscrim in a tio n  w hich m ay  h ave resu lted  in  few er b lack s serv ­
in g  as serg ean ts, in fash io n in g  an  a ffirm ativ e  rem ed y  to 
reso lve the d ifficu lt p ro b lem  p resen ted  in  th is case . I b eliev e 
the en tire  cou rt should h ave addressed  the p ro b lem  p resen ted  
in  re ly in g  on  general p op u lation  figu res w hich  in clu d e person s 
w ho clearly  do not possess q u a lifica tio n s ev en  for an  en try  
level p osition  on  the police force and  w ho ob v iou sly  a re  not 
m em b e rs  o f  the re lev ant la b o r force . See Grano v. D ept, o f  Dev. o f  
City o f  Columbus, 637  F . 2d 1 0 7 3 , 1078  (6 th  C ir . 1 9 8 0 ) (d ecision  
o f  J .  K e ith ).

T w o  ap p arent portion s o f  the g en era l p op u lation  at least 
shou ld  h ave b een  exclu d ed  from  an y  co n sid era tio n  o f  re lev ant 
sta tistica l d ata  in  this case . O n e  such  a re a  w ould be those too 
y o u n g  and  im m atu re  to qu alify  for a p osition  as police lie u te ­
n a n t ,1 and  the o th er aspect o f  age d isq u a lifica tio n  w ould be 
those too old and  physically  in cap ab le  b y  reaso n  o f  age to 
serve. A n o th er g en eral p op u lation  grou p  th at shou ld  have 
b een  exclu d ed  w ould h ave b een  those w ho h av e in ad eq u ate  
ed u ca tio n  or m en ta l cap acity  to  serve in  this im p o rtan t and  
sensitive p osition  req u irin g  at least som e m o d icu m  o f  tra in in g  
b a ck g ro u n d , ed u cation  and  m en ta l o r in te llectu a l skills. C e n ­
sus d ata  w as av ailab le  to e lim in ate  those w ho b y  reason  o f  age 
or ed u ca tio n  w ere d isqu alified ; it is ev id en t th at th is w as not 
tak en  in to  accou n t by  the p an el, w hich  th erefo re  d isregard ed  
U .S .  S u p rem e C o u rt g u id an ce in th is reg ard :

1 In D etroit P olice O fficers A ss ’n v. Young, 608 F. 2d 671 ,679  (fn.4) (6th Cir. 
1979), it was recognized that a relevant labor market would exclude those 
under twenty f i v e  y ears  o f  age for the position of Detroit Police sergeant.



81a

W h en  special q u a lifica tio n s are  req u ired  to fill p articu lar 
jo b s , co m p ariso n s to  the g en era l pop u lation  (ra th er than  
to the sm aller grou p o f  ind iv iduals who possess the 
necessary  q u a lifica tio n s) m ay h ave little  p ro bativ e  valu e. 
H azelw ood  School District, supra. 4 3 3  U .S .  a t 2 9 9 , n . 13.

T h e  C ity ’s exp ert h im se lf testified  th at it w as essential to 
define the relevant labor market to  d eterm in e racia l d isp arity , if  
any, in  the w ork  force u n d er co n sid era tio n . See H azelw ood, 
supra, 4 3 3  U .S .  at 3 0 8  an d  Detroit Police O fficers’ A s s ’n., supra, 
608  F .2 d  at 6 8 8 , w hich  recog n ize  th at the metropolitan Detroit 
labor market as the b est b asis for co m p ariso n , not general 
population  figu res for the C ity . T h is  is n ot to in d icate  that 
m ore general p op u lation  rac ia l statistica l d ata , w hich is not as 
accu rate , does n ot h ave som e re lev an ce , even  thou gh  its p ro ­
bative valu e m ay  b e slight.

Sou nd  sta tistica l d a ta  in th is case w as essential for th is cou rt 
to d eterm in e w h eth er th ere  “ is a sound basis for con clu d in g  
that m in ority  u n d errep resen ta tio n  is su bstan tia l and ch ro n ic , 
and that the h an d icap  o f  p ast d iscrim in atio n  is im ped ing 
access [and p ro m o tion ] o f  m in o r it ie s .”  Detroit Police Officers, at 
p. 6 9 4 , c itin g  Regents o f  Univ. o f  C aliforn ia v. B akke, 4 3 8  U .S . 
265 , 3 2 4  (1 9 7 8 ).

As in M ayor v. E ducation al E quality  League, 4 1 5  U .S . 6 0 5 , 621 
(1 9 7 4 ):

“ this is not a case in which it can be assumed that all 
citizens are fungible for purposes of determining whether 
members of a particular class have been unlawfully 
excluded. ”

Persons who may adequately serve as police lieutenants have 
special qualifications that many in the general population 
simply do not have. I believe that there has been a failure to 
consider the best and available statistical data, and that there 
should have been an en banc consideration in this case.



82a

R e v is io n  o r e lim in atio n  o f  S e ctio n  I V - C  o f  th e  o rig in a l 
p an el op in ion  in  this case does not in  any w ay solve the p ro b ­
lem  addressed  in this d issent.

E N T E R E D  B Y  O R D E R  O F  T H E  C O U R T

/s / J ohn P. H ehman

J o h n  P. H e h m a n , C lerk



83 a

U N IT E D  S T A T E S C O U R T  O F A P P E A L S 
F O R  T H E  S IX T H  C IR C U IT

(F ile d  M a rc h  2 9 , 1983)

H anson B ratton , et a l.,
Plaintiffs-A ppellants,

vs.

C ity  of D e t r o it , et ah, N o. 8 0 -1 8 3 7
Defendants-Appellees,

and

G uardians of M ich ig an , et ah ,
Intervening Defendants-Appellees.

Before: M E R R I T T  and  J O N E S ,  C irc u it  Ju d g e s , and 
C E L E B R E Z Z E , S e n io r  C irc u it  Ju d g e .

JU D G M E N T

O N  A P P E A L  fro m  the U n ite d  S ta tes  D istr ic t C o u rt for the 
E astern  D istric t o f  M ich ig a n .

T H I S  C A U S E  cam e on to be h eard  on  the reco rd  from  the 
said D istric t C o u rt and  w as argu ed  by cou nsel.

O N  C O N S I D E R A T IO N  W H E R E O F , it is now  h ere  
ordered and  ad ju d g ed  by this co u rt th at the ju d g m e n t o f the 
said D istric t C o u rt in  this case b e  and  the sam e is h ereb y  
affirm ed.



84a

E a c h  p arty  to b ea r  its ow n costs on  this appeal

E N T E R E D  B Y  O R D E R  O F  T H E  
C O U R T

J o h n  P . H e h m a n , C lerk

/s/ J ohn P . H ehman 

C le rk

Issu ed  as M a n d a te : 
J u n e  2 1 , 1983

A  T r u e  C o p y .
A ttest:

C O S T S :  N O N E
/s/ L inda L . B rinson

E ih n g  l e e ...........  %
P r in t in g .............. $

T o ta l . . . .  $

D e p u ty  C lerk



85a

BAKER v. CITY OF DETROIT
Cite as 483 F.Supp. 930 (1979)

MEMORANDUM OPINION

K E I T H , C irc u it  Ju d g e , S ittin g  b y  D e sig n atio n ,

I N D E X

In tro d u ctio n

I. P ro ced u ra l H isto ry

A . S ta te m e n t o f  the C ase

B . S u m m a ry  o f  the L eg a l C la im s

I I . T h e  H isto ry  o f  P a st D iscrim in a tio n  in the D e tro it 
P o lice  D e p a rtm e n t

A . H irin g  P ra ctices

1. 1943  —  T h e  F irst D e tro it  R a c e  R io t

2. E m p lo y m en t P ra c tice s  1 9 4 4 -5 3

3. E m p lo y m en t P ra c tice s  1 9 5 4 -6 0

4. E m p lo y m en t P ra c tice s  1 9 6 0 -6 7

5. T h e  D e p a rtm e n t’s R e la tio n s  w ith the B la ck  C o m ­
m u n ity

6. T h e  1967  R io t

7. T h e  D e tro it  P o lice  D e p a rtm e n t 1 9 6 7 -6 8

8 . 1 9 6 7 -1 9 7 4  E m p lo y m en t P ra c tice s  o f  the D etro it 
P o lice  D e p a rtm e n t
(a ) 1 9 6 7 -1 9 7 1  E m p lo y m en t P ra ctices
(b ) 1 9 7 1 -1 9 7 4  E m p lo y m en t P ractices

B . P ro m o tio n a l P ractices

1- T h e  R a c ia l M a k e -u p  o f  the D e p a rtm e n t’s S u p er­
v isory R a n k s  1 9 6 7 -1 9 7 4



86a

2. P ro m o tio n a l L in e s  o f  P ro g ressio n

3 . T h e  P ro m o tio n a l P rocess

(a ) M in im u m  E lig ib ility  R e q u ire m e n ts  to  S it for 
the E x a m in a tio n

(b ) T h e  C o m p o n en ts  o f  the P ro m o tio n a l M o d e l

(1 )  S erv ice  R a tin g s
(2 ) P ro m o tio n a l R a tin g s
(3 ) S en io rity
(4 ) T h e  W ritte n  P ro m o tio n a l E x a m in a tio n
(5 ) V e te ra n s  P re fere n ce  and  C o lleg e  C red its

(c) A d d itional E lig ib ility  R e q u ire m e n ts  for P ro ­
m otion

(d ) T h e  M e ch a n ics  o f  the P ro m o tio n a l S y stem

4. D iscrim in a tio n  w ith in  the P ro m o tio n a l M o d el

I I I .  D e fe n d a n t’s P ast D iscrim in a tio n  M o d e l —  A n 
A nalysis

A . R e le v a n t L a b o r  M a rk e t

B . D e fe n d a n t’ s E x p e r t ’ s A n alysis

I V . 19 7 4  —  T h e  A d op tion  o f  A ffirm ativ e  A ctio n  and 
Su b seq u e n t O ccu rre n ce s

A . T h e  B o a rd  o f  P o lice  C o m m issio n ers  and  the A d op ­
tion  o f A ffirm ativ e  A ctio n

B . T h e  P ro m o tio n a l M o d e l 1 9 7 4 -P re se n t; A n  O v e r ­
view

1. Im m e d ia te  B ack g ro u n d

2. E fforts to Im p ro v e  the P ro m o tio n a l M o d el

(a ) O ra l B oard s

(b ) T h e  W ritte n  E x a m in a tio n

(c) E lig ib ility  for P ro m o tio n



87a

V . T h e  M a tte r  o f  R e la tiv e  Q u alifica tio n s

A . T h e  W ritte n  E x a m

B . S e rv ice  R a tin g s

C . C o n firm a tio n  Se rv ice  R a tin g s  and O ffice r  C a n ­
d idate Sch o o l Sco res

D . S u m m a ry

V I .  T h e  L e g a l S ta n d a rd  for V o lu n ta ry  A ffirm ativ e  A c­

tion

A . T h e  L e g a l C la im s

B . T h e  T it le  V I I  and  §1981  C la im

1. T h e  W eber D e cisio n

2. W eber an d  the D e tro it  A ffirm ativ e  A ctio n  P lan

3. T h e  C ity ’ s P a st V io la tio n  o f  T it le  V I I

C . T h e  C o n stitu tio n a l C la im

1. T h e  B o a rd  o f  P o lice  C o m m iss io n e rs ’ F in d in g s o f  
P ast D iscrim in a tio n

2. In te n tio n a l P a st D iscrim in a tio n

3. S u m m a ry

4. W a s  the C ity ’ s A ffirm ativ e  A ctio n  P la n  R e a s o n ­
able?

D . S ta te  L aw  C la im s

V I I .  T h e  C ity ’s O p e ra tio n a l N eed s D efen se

A . T h e  B la ck  C o m m u n ity  and  R a c ia l D iscrim in a tio n  
by the P o lice  D e p a rtm e n t

B . P rev a ilin g  A ttitu d es in the P o lice  D e p artm e n t

V I I I .  C o n clu sio n



88a

IN T R O D U C T IO N

T h is  case p resents a  host o f  issues reg a rd in g  a ffirm ativ e  a c­
tion  an d  the b ro a d er q u estio n  o f  race  re la tio n s in the C ity  o f  
D e tro it  and th rou g h o u t the U n ite d  S ta tes . It  b rin g s in to  focus 
the ten sio n  w hich  exists w hen  the ex p e cta tio n s o f  w hites are 
affected  by  p ro g ram s d esigned  to aid  m in o rities .

T h e  con trov ersy  in  this case ca n  be sim p ly  su m m arized . In  
1 9 7 4 , the C ity  o f  D e tro it co m m en ced  an  a ffirm a tiv e  actio n  
p ro g ram  reg ard in g  p ro m o tion s in  the D e tro it  P o lice  D e p a rt­
m en t. T h is  p ro g ram  resu lted  in  the p re fe ren tia l p ro m o tio n  o f 
B la c k  O fficers . W h ite  officers con sid ered  them selv es ag g riev ­
ed b y  the p ro g ram  and b ro u g h t this law suit. T h e r e  exist three 
b asic  jo b  levels1 in the D e tro it  P o lice  D e p a rtm e n t: p a tro lm a n , 
serg ean t and  lieu ten an t. T h e  p a rticu la r  co n tro v ersy  in  this 
case co n cern s the p ro m o tion  o f  o fficers from  the ran k  o f 
serg ean t to the ran k  o f  l ie u te n a n t.2

T h e  ord in ary  p roced u re w h ich  the D e tro it  P o lice  D e p a rt­
m en t uses to  m ak e p ro m o tion s can  b e  sim p ly  su m m arized . 
T h e  can d id ate  takes a w ritten  e x a m in a tio n  an d , u pon  a tta in ­
in g  a m in im u m  score o f  7 0 , the o ffice r ’ s n am e is p laced  on  a 
p ro m o tio n  elig ib ility  list. T h e  o ffice r ’ s ran k  on  su ch  a list is 
d eterm in ed  by  a n u m b er o f  facto rs, in clu d in g  ex a m  score, 
len g th  o f  service in D e p a rtm e n t, ra tin g s by  su p erio r o fficers, 
and  level o f  college ed u cation . A lth ou g h  the rela tiv e  w eights o f

1 There do exist other ranks such as Commander and Chief of Police, but 
very few persons occupy them.

2 A closely related lawsuit was decided in February of 1978 by another 
U .S. district judge of the Eastern District of Michigan, the late Fred W. 
Kaess. D PO A  v Young, 446 F.Supp. 979 (E.D . Mich. 1978). That case 
concerned the affirmative action program regarding promotions from the 
rank of patrolman to the rank of sergeant. It is currently awaiting deci­
sion on appeal to the U .S. Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit.



89a

these factors h ave b een  sh ifted  over the y ears , the g en era l p ro ­
cedure has rem a in e d  th a t a fter  each  facto r has b een  assessed, 
an overall ra tin g  is g iv en  to each  officer d esirin g  p ro m o tion . 
T h e  can d id ates for p ro m o tio n  are  th en  ran k ed  n u m erica lly  
from  1 to 5 0 0  or how ever m an y  officers there  are  on  the list. 
O rd in arily , the o fficers (in  this case sergean ts) are prom oted  
to the h ig h er ra n k  (in  this case lieu ten an t) strictly  in ran k  
order, d ep end ing  on  how  m a n y  op enin gs are av ailab le . T h u s , 
if  the D e p a rtm e n t n eed ed  12 lieu ten an ts , it w ould p ro m o te  the 
top 12 sergean ts on  the list.

T h e  C ity ’ s a ffirm ativ e  ac tio n  p ro g ram  added a  sim ple 
w rinkle to  the o rd in ary  p ro m o tio n  p ro ced u re —  it ensu red  
that equ al n u m b ers o f  b la ck  and  w hite officers w ould b e  p ro ­
m oted. T h u s , in stead  o f  p ro m o tin g  in  ord er o f  ran k  on the 
eligibility list, the C ity  p ro m o ted  the top w hite o fficers an d  the 
top b lack  o fficers in  eq u al n u m b ers  as n eed ed  to fill the 
available op enin gs at the lie u te n a n t’s level. T h e  p ro b lem  cited  
by plaintiffs is th a t a lm o st all o f  the b lack  o fficers ran ked  low er 
on the list. B y  p ro m o tin g  these lo w er-ran k in g  b lack  officers, 
the C ity  effectiv ely  b y -p assed  a n  eq u a l n u m b er o f  w hite o f­
ficers w ho ran k ed  h ig h er on  the list and  w ho w ould otherw ise 
have been  p ro m o ted . T h u s , if  the C ity  n eed ed  22  lieu ten an ts, 
instead o f  tak in g  the top 22 serg ean ts on  the p ro m o tio n  list, it 
would take the top  11 w hite sergean ts and  the top  11 b lack  
sergeants. W h ite  serg ean ts w ith  n u m b ers  12 -22  on  the p ro m o ­
tion list w ould b e  passed  ov er for p ro m o tio n , assu m in g  th at 
there w ere no b la ck  serg ean ts in  this ran g e .

T h e  by-p assed  w hite serg ean ts w ere u n d erstan d ab ly  upset. 
T h ey  had  follow ed the p ro ced u res for p ro m o tio n  set ou t by  the 
C ity  and had  ran k ed  n e a r  the top o f  the p ro m o tion s list. T h e y  
considered it grossly u n fa ir  for the C ity  to b y-p ass th em . In  
addition, the b lack  o fficers w ho w ere p ro m o ted  ahead  o f the 
by-passed w hite o fficers h ad  ran k ed  low er on  the list, and 
thus, in the m ind s o f  the w hite o fficers, w ere less qualified .



90a

F e e lin g  that they  had  b een  illegally  d iscrim in ated  a g a in st, the 
w hite serg ean ts b ro u g h t this law su it. A lth o u g h  the legal issues 
are  v aried  and  co m p lex , the p la in tiffs ’ c la im  can  b e  sim ply  
an d  accu ra te ly  su m m arized  —  it should  be illegal fo r the C ity  
to p ro m o te  b lack s ov er w hites solely b ecau se  o f  ra ce , esp ecia l­
ly  w h en  the w hites ran k ed  h ig h er on  the list an d  w ere thu s, 
p resu m ab ly , b e tter  qualified .

P la in tiffs  p osition  h as facia l ap p eal. O n  the face o f  it, rac ia l 
d iscrim in atio n  ag ain st w hites should  n ot b e  to lera ted  by  the 
law  an y  m ore th an  rac ia l d iscrim in atio n  ag ain st b lack s. W h y  
should  lo w er-ran k in g  b lacks get p ro m o tion s ov er h ig h e r-ra n k ­
in g  w hites? T h e  C ity ’s resp onse to these co n cern s ra ised  by 
p la in tiffs also has m u ch  ap p eal: 1) T h e  C ity  h as b een  gu ilty  o f 
ex ten siv e  past d iscrim in atio n  ag ain st b lack s; 2 ) b lack  officers 
a t all ran ks are  desp erately  n eed ed  in  a  p re d o m in an tly  b lack  
c ity  b ecau se  o f  the need for c itizen -p o lice  co o p era tio n  and 
rela ted  reason s; and 3) the b lack  officers p ro m o ted  w ere as 
q u alified  as the w hite o fficers passed ov er by  th em  b ecau se  the 
ran k in g  on  the p ro m o tio n a l list w as essen tially  m ean in g less.

T h e s e  are  the issues p resen ted  in  this len g th y  litig ation . 
T h e y  a re  n ot easy to resolve and  th ere  is no resu lt w h ich  can  
satisfy  b o th  sides. T h e  p arties and  the people o f  the C ity  de­
serve a full ex p lan atio n  o f  this C o u r t ’s view s. B eca u se  o f  the 
s ig n ifican t an d  d ifficu lt n a tu re  o f  this case , this C o u rt shall try  
to w rite  as c le a r  and con cise  an  op in ion  as possib le ; u n d er­
stan d able  by  law yer an d  la y m a n  alike. T h e  C o u rt sets forth  
h erein b elow  its find ings o f  fact and  con clu sio n s o f  law , in  a c­
co rd an ce  w ith R u le  5 2 (a )  o f  the F ed era l R u le s  o f  C iv il 
P ro ced u re .



91a

I .  P R O C E D U R A L  H I S T O R Y  

A , S ta te m e n t  o f  th e  C a se

T h is  con so lid ated  a ctio n  ch alleng es the m ethod  o f p ro m o ­
tions o f b lack  m ale  p olice  o fficers from  the ran k  o f  sergean t to 
the ran k  o f lieu ten a n t w ith in  the D e tro it  P o lice  D e p a rtm e n t 
(D ep a rtm e n t) m ad e p u rsu an t to a v o lu n tary  affirm ativ e  ac­
tion p ro g ram  w h ich  the g o v ern in g  b od y o f the D e p a rtm e n t, 
the B o ard  o f P o lice  C o m m issio n ers , p rom u lg ated  in J u ly ,  
1974 . N am ed  as d efen d an ts in  this law suit are  the C ity  o f  
D etro it; C o le m a n  A . Y o u n g , M a y o r  o f  the C ity  o f D e tro it; 
the D e tro it B o a rd  o f  P o lice  C o m m issio n ers  and  its individual 
m em bers; an d  P h ilip  G . T a n n ia n , C h ie f  o f  P o lice3 (C ity  
d efen d an ts).

C ase  N u m b er 5 -7 1 9 3 7  w as co m m en ced  in  this C o u rt on 
O cto b er 7 , 19 7 5 , by  K e n n e th  A . B a k e r  and  six o th er in ­
dividuals (th e  B aker  p la in tiffs). E a c h  c la im s th at he w as denied  
p rom otion  from  the ran k  o f  serg ean t to lieu ten an t o ff  o f  the 
1973 elig ib ility  reg ister solely on  the b asis o f  h is race  and se x ,4 
in v io lation  o f  T it le  V I  o f  the C iv il R ig h ts  A ct o f  19 6 4 , 42 
U .S .C .  § 2 0 0 0 d , T it le  V I I  o f  the C iv il R ig h ts  A ct o f  1 9 6 4 , as 
am ended M a rc h  2 4 , 1 9 7 2 , 42  U .S .C .  § 2 0 0 0 e  et seq. and  
§ 7 0 6 ( f ) (1 )  an d  ( 3 ) , .4 2  U .S .C .  §§ 1 9 8 1 , 1 9 8 3 , and 1 9 8 5 (3 ) , 
the C o n stitu tio n  o f the U n ite d  S ta tes  and  the C o n stitu tio n  and 
laws o f  the S ta te  o f  M ic h ig a n , an d  the C h a rte r  o f  the C ity  o f  
D etro it.

C ase  N u m b er 5 -7 2 2 6 4  w as b ro u g h t as a  class actio n  in 
W ay n e C o u n ty  C irc u it  C o u r t  on  N o v em b er 3 , 19 7 5 . T h e

3 The present Chief of Police, William L. Hart, replaced Mr. Tannian 
in September of 1976.

4 The allegations concerning sex discrimination were later dropped.



92a

n am ed  p lain tiffs are  H a n so n  B ra tto n , fou r o th er  ind iv id u al 
w h ite  m a le  se rg ea n ts , an d  the D e tro it  L ie u te n a n ts  an d  
S e rg ea n ts  A ssocia tion  (th e  Bratton  p la in tiffs), w ho ch alleng ed  
the sam e affirm ativ e  actio n  p ro g ram  u n d er a tta ck  by  the B aker  
p la in tiffs. H o w ev er these cla im s are  lim ited  to p ro m o tion s 
th at w ere m ad e o ff  o f  the 1974  and su bseq u en t e lig ib ility  
re g is te rs .5 B o th  sets o f  p lain tiffs sought p ro m o tio n , b a ck  pay , 
ac tu a l and p u n itiv e d am ages and  an  in ju n ctio n  ag a in st co n ­
tin u ed  op eration  o f  the a ffirm ativ e  a c tio n  p ro g ram .

O n  m otio n  o f the C ity  d efen d an ts, the Bratton  a c tio n  was 
rem ov ed  to the U n ite d  S ta tes  D is tr ic t  C o u rt fo r the E a ste rn  
D istr ic t  o f  M ic h ig a n  on N o v em b er 2 6 , 1 9 7 5 . W h ile  still in 
state  co u rt, the Bratton  p lain tiffs sought and  o b ta in ed  a  te m ­
p o ra ry  restra in in g  ord er and an  o rd er to show  cau se w hy a 
p re lim in ary  in ju n ctio n  should n ot be issued e n jo in in g  the p ro ­
m o tio n  o f  b lack  m ale officers from  the ra n k  o f  serg ean t to 
lieu ten a n t p u rsu ant to the a ffirm ativ e  a c tio n  p ro g ram . C ity  
defen d an ts m oved to dissolve the tem p o rary  res tra in in g  ord er 
issued by the state cou rt. A fter a h ea rin g , th is co u rt d issolved 
the tem p orary  restra in in g  ord er on  N o v em b er 2 6 , 1975 .

T h e  B aker  p laintiffs p etition ed  for a p re lim in a ry  in ju n ctio n  
re s tra in in g  the D e p a rtm e n t from  m a k in g  p ro m o tion s to  the 
ran k  o f  lieu ten an t p u rsu an t to the a ffirm ativ e  actio n  p ro g ram . 
T h e  p re lim in ary  in ju n ctio n  m o tio n  w as d en ied  a fter  a h earin g  
b y  this C o u rt on O cto b e r  2 4 , 19 7 5 .

The Lieutenant and Sergeant’s Association, (B ratton  plaintiffs) did not 
oppose the first set of affirmative action promotions made on Septem­
ber 23, 1974, from the eligible register for the December 16, 1973, lieute­
nant’s exam. According to former LSA president Joseph Clark, this was 
because the city agreed to allow an early pension payout in return. The 
individual group of officers known as the B a k er  plaintiffs did file suit 
against this first set of promotions however.



93a

T h e  Bratton  p lain tiffs m oved  for leave to am en d  their 
original co m p la in t on  F e b ru a ry  7 , 19 7 7 . T h is  C o u rt gran ted  
the m otio n  by  ord er d ated  M a rc h  9 , 19 7 7 . T h e  defend ants 
filed th e ir an sw er to the am en d ed  co m p la in t and a ffirm ativ e  
defenses on  M a y  2 4 , 1977 .

O n  A u g u st 2 6 , 1 9 7 6 , this C o u r t certified  the Bratton  action  
as a class actio n  p u rsu an t to R u le  2 3 ( b ) ( 2 )  o f  F ed era l R u le s  o f  
C ivil P ro ced u re . O n  S e p te m b e r 19 , 1 9 7 7 , the C o u rt am end ed  
its class actio n  o rd er and d efin ed  the class as:

“ A ll p ast, p resen t an d  fu tu re  q u alified  w hite m ale police 
sergeants w ho since N o v em b er 1 9 7 4  h ave b een  o r will be 
denied b ecau se  o f  th e ir  ra ce  to b e  tim ely  p ro m o ted  to the 
rank o f lieu ten a n t. ’ ’

P lain tiffs m oved  on  A p ril 7 , 1 9 7 8 , to  recu se this C o u rt. 
A fter re ferrin g  th e  m o tio n  to  the M a g istra te  and a h earin g , 
this C o u rt d en ied  the m o tio n  by m em o ran d u m  op in ion  and 
order dated J u n e  2 9 , 19 7 8 .

O n  M a y  18 , 1 9 7 8 , the G u a rd ia n s  o f  M ic h ig a n , a v o lu n tary  
association o f  b la ck  p olice  o fficers, and  seven n am ed  in d iv id ­
uals, m oved to in terv en e  as p arties  d efen d an t in  these action s 
(In terv en ors). B y  ord er d ated  J u l y  6 , 1 9 7 8 , the co u rt granted  
in tervention  allow ing  the G u a rd ia n s , et a h , to proceed  as p ar­
ty defendants.

B y  ord er d ated  M a y  4 , 1 9 7 8 , this C o u rt g ran ted  the C ity  
d efendants’ m otio n  to con so lid ate  the B aker  and  Bratton  action s 
for rem ain in g  p re -tria l m atters and  for tria l. In  J u n e ,  1968 , 
the Bratton  and  B aker  p lain tiffs filed a jo in t  m otio n  for su m ­
m ary ju d g m e n t on  the issue o f  liab ility . A fter con sid erin g  the 
recom m end ation  o f  the M a g is tra te  and  h e a rin g  fu rth er oral 
argum ents by  the p arties , this C o u rt by  o rd er d ated  A u g u st 1, 
1978, denied  the m otio n .

In  J u n e ,  19 7 8 , p lain tiffs m oved fo r tria l by ju r y  at the 
liab ility  stage o f  the p ro ce ed in g s. A fte r  c o n sid e rin g  the



94a

reco m m e n d a tio n s o f the M a g is tra te , and the p lead in gs o f  the 
p arties , the C o u rt by  op in ion  and o rd er d ated  A u g u st 1, 1 9 7 8 , 
re je c te d  p la in tiffs ’ d em an d  for a ju r y  tria l. P la in tiffs  sought a 
w rit o f  m an d am u s on  the ju r y  issue w hich  the C o u r t o f  A p ­
peals fo r the S ix th  C ircu it d en ie d .6

P r io r  to tr ia l, p lain tiffs m oved to com p el the C ity  to respond 
to  c e rta in  d iscovery  req u ests. A fter h e a rin g  o ra l a rg u m en t, 
the C o u rt granted  p la in tiffs ’ m otio n  an d  req u ested  th at the 
B aker  p lain tiffs su bm it an  ord er em b o d y in g  the ru lin g  o f  the 
C o u r t from  the b en ch . T h e re a fte r , the p arties  en tered  in to  an 
a g ree m en t ou tlin in g  the fu rth er d iscovery  ob lig atio n s o f  the 
C ity  defen d an ts as well as those o f  the in terv en in g  defen d an ts. 
B y  th is  stip u la tio n  the p a rtie s  reso lv ed  a ll o u ts ta n d in g  
d iscovery  m atters an d  d u rin g  the tria l the C o u r t w as advised 
th a t all ou tstan d in g  d iscovery  req u ests had b een  satisfied .

B y  stip u lation  all p arties ag reed  to b ifu rca te  the tria l p ro ­
ceed ing s in to two stages, one to d eterm in e  liab ility  and 
a n o th er to assess d am ages.

O n  A u gu st 19, 19 7 8 , the C ity  d efen d an ts filed  a m o tio n  for 
p a rtia l su m m ary  ju d g m e n t, seek in g  d ism issal o f  a ll m o n etary  
c la im s o th er th an  b a ck  pay. T h is  C o u rt g ran ted  the m o tio n  by 
m em o ran d u m  op in ion  and ord er d ated  S e p te m b e r  2 5 , 1979 .

O n  A u gust 2 2 , 19 7 8 , this C o u rt co m m en ced  tria l o f  the 
liab ility  phase o f this litig ation . T h e  tria l sp an n ed  five m on ths, 
in clu d in g  55  tria l days, and  w as com p leted  on  Ja n u a r y  18, 
1 9 7 9 . O v e r  45 w itnesses ap p eared  at tria l and  the parties 
stip u lated  to the in tro d u ctio n  o f  p rio r sw orn testim o n y . T h e

6 Justice Thurgood Marshall of the U.S. Supreme Court denied plain­
tiff s request for a stay of proceedings pending Supreme Court considera­
tion of the jury trial issue. It does not appear, however, that the plaintiffs 
ever petitioned the Court to review the Sixth Circuit’s denial of a writ of 
mandamus.



95a

total tria l tran scrip t w as ov er 6 3 0 0  pages. In  ad d itio n , over 
230 exh ib its w ere in trod u ced  in to  ev id en ce.

A ll p a r tie s  w ere  o rd e re d  to su b m it p o s t- tr ia l  b r ie fs  
sim ultaneou sly  and  all sides w ere afforded  an  op p ortu n ity  to 
subm it rep ly  b rie fs . O n  A p ril 3 0 , 19 7 9 , the C o u rt h eard  clos­
ing arg u m en ts.

B . S u m m ary of the L eg al C laim s
P lain tiffs a llege th at the C ity ’s a ffirm ativ e  ac tio n  plan 

d iscrim inates ag a in st th em  b ecau se  o f  th e ir race  (w hite) and 
that such d iscrim in a tio n  v io lates b o th  fed eral and state law . 
P laintiffs c la im  th a t th ere  should  b e  no d ifferen ce betw een  
d iscrim in a tio n  a g a in st w h ites an d  d iscrim in a tio n  ag ain st 
b lacks, regard less o f  good in ten tio n s or the desire to rem edy 
possible past d iscrim in atio n .

D efen d an ts d en y  th a t th e ir  ac tio n s v io late  an y  p rovisions o f  
state or fed eral law , o r o f  th e  co n stitu tio n s o f  th e  S ta te  o f  
M ich ig an  or th e  U n ite d  S ta te s , an d  co n ten d  th at the law  p er­
m its the D e p a rtm e n t’s v o lu n tary  a ffirm ativ e  actio n  efforts. 
T h ey  assert th a t th e  D e p a rtm e n t and  its g ov ern in g  b od y, the 
B oard  o f  P o lice  C o m m issio n ers  (B o a rd ) h ad  a n  a ffirm ativ e  
duty, u n d er sta te  and  fed eral gu id elines an d  law , an d  the 
U n ited  S ta tes  C o n stitu tio n , to rem ed y  the p resen t effects o f  
the D e p a rtm e n t’s p ast em p lo y m en t d iscrim in a tio n , and  to 
assure that the D e p artm e n t police the C ity  o f  D etro it effectively 
and in  a  n o n -d iscrim in a to ry  fash io n .

As noted in this C o u r t ’s O p in io n  on the su m m ary  ju d g m en t 
issu e,7 a fter ex ten siv e  p u b lic  h ea rin g s and p resen ta tio n s o f  
fact and law , the B o a rd  o f  P o lice  C o m m issio n ers  by  reso lu tion  
in Ju ly , 1 9 7 4 , fou nd it n ecessary  b ecau se  o f  p ast and  p resent

7 See Memorandum Opinion and Order granting defendants’ motion 
for partial summary judgment, released September 25, 1979, 483 
F.Supp 919.



96a

d iscrim in atio n  in  the h irin g  an d  p ro m o tio n  p ractices o f  the 
D e p a rtm e n t, and  the o p era tio n a l needs o f  the D e p a rtm e n t, to 
in stitu te  an a ffirm ativ e  actio n  p ro m o tio n a l sch em e. A t in te r­
vals th e re a fte r , the B o a rd  review ed the c o n tin u in g  n eed  for 
the p ro g ram .

D e fe n d a n ts  con ten d  th at the facts ov erw h elm in g ly  su pport 
the d efen d an ts’ d e term in atio n s (1 ) th at the D e p a rtm e n t had 
u nlaw fu lly  d iscrim in ated  ag ain st b lack s in  h irin g  and  p ro m o ­
tio n s; (2 )  th at the D e p a rtm e n t’s d iscrim in atio n  h ad  d am ag in g  
effects ag a in st n ot only b lack  ap p lican ts and  p olice  o fficers b u t 
a ls o  a g a in s t  b la c k  r e s id e n t s  o f  D e t r o i t  a n d  o n  th e  
D e p a rtm e n t’s ab ility  to police the C ity  effectiv ely ; and  (3 ) th at 
the affirm ativ e  action  p ro m o tio n a l sch em e was the only  effec­
tive rem ed y to erad icate  p rio r em p lo y m en t d iscrim in a tio n , to 
im p rov e the D e p a rtm e n t’s o p e ra tio n a l e ffic ien cy , and  to 
re p a ir  p o lice-citizen  re la tion s.

P la in tiffs argu e th at the C ity ’s defenses should b e  irre lev an t 
as a m a tte r  o f  law  an d  can n o t ju s tify  the effect o f  the a ffir­
m ativ e  action  p ro g ram  on th em . F u rth e r , the p la in tiffs argu e 
th a t an y  past d iscrim in atio n  ag ain st b lack  o fficers m erely  
resu lted  from  the use o f  facia lly  n eu tra l h irin g  c r ite r ia , such  as 
I Q.- tests, w hich  b lack s failed  m u ch  m ore th an  o ften  th an  
w hites. P la in tiffs con ced e th at u se o f  such  d iscrim in a to ry  tests 
w hich  are not d em on strab ly  jo b -re la te d  v iolates T it le  V I I  o f 
the 1964  C iv il R ig h ts  A ct, as in terp re ted  by the S u p rem e 
C o u rt in Griggs v. D uke Pow er C o . , 401 U .S .  4 2 4 , 91 S .C t .  8 4 9 , 
28  L .E d .2 d  158 (1 9 7 1 ) . H o w ev er, T it le  V I I  did n ot apply to 
m u n icip a l em ployers such as the d efen d an t u ntil M a rc h  o f 
1972 . P la in tiffs thus con ten d  th at a lth ou g h  p ast D e p a rtm e n t 
p ractices m ay h ave h u rt b la ck s ’ ch an ces for h irin g  or p ro m o ­
tio n , the D e p a rtm e n t did not v io late  the law  in  the past 
b ecau se it did not en g ag e in past intentional d iscrim in atio n  
w hich  w ould am o u n t to a C o n stitu tio n a l v io lation  ag ain st 
b lack  officers u n d er W ashington v. D av is, 4 2 6  U .S .  2 2 9 , 96
S .C t .  2 0 4 0 , 48  L .E d .2 d  5 9 7  (1 9 7 6 ) .



97a

F in a lly , p la in tiffs arg u e  th at even  i f  a ffirm ativ e  actio n  is in 
order, they  should  n ot have to  pay the p rice  for it. T h a t  is, the 
C ity  should  at least b e  ord ered  to  pay th em  b a ck  w ages and  
other co m p en sa tio n  th ey  w ould otherw ise h ave receiv ed . T h e  
case is now  read y  for d ecision . F o r  the reason s w hich follow , 
this C o u rt upholds the C ity ’s a ffirm ativ e  actio n  p lan  as p er­
m issible u n d er law .

I I .  T H E  H IS T O R Y  O F  P A ST  D IS C R IM IN A T IO N  IN 
T H E  D E T R O IT  P O L IC E  D E P A R T M E N T

A. H iring  P ractices
T h e  D e tro it  P o lice  D e p a rtm e n t’s A ffirm ativ e  A ctio n  P ro ­

gram  does n ot ex ist in  a  v acu u m , n o r did it pop up ov ern ig ht 
ju s t becau se the C ity  thou gh t that it w ould b e  a  good th in g  to 
do. A s w ill be d iscussed  below , the p ro g ram  arose princip ally  
because the C ity  tho u g h t it n ecessary  to  offset y ears o f  dis­
crim in ation . P u t an o th er w ay, the C ity  reason ed  th at ab sen t 
d iscrim in ation , m a n y  m o re  b lack  o fficers w ould h av e risen  to 
the ran k  o f  lieu ten a n t. A t tr ia l, the C ity  in trod u ced  exten siv e 
evidence reg ard in g  p ast d iscrim in a tio n  ag a in st b lack s in  the 
police d ep artm en t —  in  h ir in g , in  the ran k s, an d  in  p ro m o ­
tions. I t  is a sad and  sorry  record  and  it is larg ely  u ndispu ted .

L  1 9 4 3  —  T he F irst Detroit R ace R io t

In  J u n e  o f 1943  a  ra ce  rio t eru p ted  in  D e tro it . T h e  rio t u n ­
questionably  had  m an y  cau ses, e .g . ten sio n  b etw een  So u th ern  
w orkers w ho w ere w ork in g  in  D e tro it  facto ries d u rin g  the w ar 
and the b lack  co m m u n ity . W h ile  it can n o t b e  said th at the 
D etro it P o lice  D e p a rtm e n t cau sed  the rio t, the D e p a rtm e n t’s 
perform ance d u rin g  the rio t w as d istu rb in g . T h e  D e p a rtm e n t 
was v irtu ally  all w hite and  the few b lack  m em b ers o f  the 
D ep artm en t w ere strictly  segregated . T h e  D e p a rtm e n t had  
over three  tho u san d  officers. Y e t , th ere  w ere on ly  43  b lack



98a

officers in the D e p a rtm e n t an d , as will be d iscussed  below , 
they  w ere treated  as second -class o fficers. D u rin g  the rio t b oth  
b la ck  and  w hite citizens w ere openly en g ag ed  in u nlaw fu l, 
rio tou s co n d u ct, yet en fo rcem en t o f the law  w as not equ al.

A  com p reh en siv e rep ort d escrib in g  and  a n a ly z in g  the rio t 
was prepared in 1943 by  W a lter W h ite  and T h u rg o o d  M arsh all 
o f  the N atio n a l A sso cia tio n  o f  the A d v an cem en t o f C o lo red  
Peop le (N A A C P ). M r . M a rsh a ll, now  a Ju s t ic e  on  the U n ite d  
S ta tes  Su p rem e C o u rt, d escribed  past d iscrim in ato ry  police 
p ractices in D e tro it and w ent on to discuss the D e p a rtm e n t’s 
role in  the riot:

“ In  the J u n e  rio ts o f  th is y ear, the D e tro it  po lice  ran  true 
to  form . T h e  tro u b le  reach ed  rio t p ro p ortion s b ecau se  the 
police o f  D etro it once again  enforced  the law u n d er an u n ­
equ al hand. T h e y  used “ persu asion ’ ’ ra th er than  firm  action  
w ith  w hite rio ters w hile ag ain st N egroes they  used the 
u ltim ate  in force; n ight sticks, revolvers, rio t gu ns, su b ­
m a ch in e  guns, and  deer guns. A s a resu lt, 25 o f  the 3 4  p er­
sons killed w ere N egroes. O f  the 25 N eg roes k illed , 17 w ere 
killed  by  police. T h e  excuses o f  the P o lice  D e p a rtm e n t o f 
the d isp rop ortion ate n u m b er o f  N eg roes killed is th at the 
m a jo rity  o f  them  w ere killed w hile co m m ittin g  felon ies; 
n am ely , the lo o tin g  o f  stores on  H astin g s S tre e t. O n  the 
o th er h an d , the crim es o f arson  and  felon iou s assault are 
also felonies. I t  is true that som e N eg roes w ere lo o tin g  
stores on  H astin g s S tre et and  w ere shot w hile co m m ittin g  
these crim es. It is equ ally  tru e that w hite p ersons w ere tu rn ­
in g  over and  b u rn in g  au to m o biles on W oo d w ard  A v en u e. 
T h is  is A rso n . O th ers  w ere b ea tin g  N eg roes w ith  iron 
pipes, clu bs, and  rocks. T h is  is felonious assau lt. Severa l 
N eg ro es w ere stab b ed . T h is  is assau lt w ith  in te n t to 
m u rd er.

A ll o f  these crim es are m atters o f  record ; m an y  w ere 
com m itted  in the p resen ce o f  police o fficers, several on  the



99a

p av em en t aro u n d  the C ity  H all. Y e t , the reco rd  rem a in s , 
N eg roes killed  b y  police —- 17 ; w hite persons killed  by 
police —  n o n e. E ig h ty -fiv e  p ercen t o f  p ersons arrested  w ere 

N egroes.

E v id en ce  o f  ten sio n  in D e tro it  has been  ap p aren t for 
m on ths. T h e  D e tro it  F re e  P ress sent a rep o rter to the police 
d ep artm en t. W h e n  C o m m iss io n er  W ith ersp o o n  w as asked 
how h e w as h an d lin g  the situ a tio n , he told  the rep o rter: 
‘W e  have given  ord ers to h an d le  it w ith  kid  gloves. T h e  
p olicem en  have tak en  insu lts to keep tro u b le  from  b rea k in g  
out. I  d ou bt i f  you  or I cou ld  h ave put up w ith  i t . ’ 1  his 
w eak-kn eed  policy  o f  the police co m m issio n er cou pled  w ith 
the a n ti-N e g ro  a ttitu d e  o f  m a n y  m em b ers o f  the force 
helped to  m ak e a  rio t in e v ita b le .”

T h u rg o o d  M a rsh a ll, “ A ctiv ities  o f  P o lice  D u rin g  the 
R io ts  J u n e  21 and  2 2 , 1 9 4 3 ”  in W h ite  &  M a rsh a ll, W hat 
Caused the Detroit R iot?  A n A nalysis 2 9 -3 0  (N A A C P  1943) 
(E x h ib it  2 1 7 ) . See also  R .  S h o g an  & T . C ra ig , T he Detroit 
R ace R iot, A Study in Violence (1 9 6 4 ) .

In  this sam e rep o rt, M r . W h ite  com p la in ed  o f  the “ in ad e­
quate n u m b e r”  o f b lack  officers and  specifically recom m end ed  
“ that the n u m b e r o f  N eg ro  officers b e  in creased  from  43  to 
350 [and] that there be im m ed iate p rom otions o f  N eg ro  officers 
in u n iform  to p ositions o f  re sp o n sib ility .”  W h ite  &  M a rsh a ll, 
supra a t 17. T h e  C ity  did not follow  this reco m m e n d atio n .

2. Em ploym ent Practices 1 9 4 4 -5 3

Betw een  1 9 4 4  and 1 9 5 3 , 3 0 0 5  w hites and  17 b lack s ( 3 .7 % )  
were ap p oin ted  to the D e p a rtm e n t. B y  w ay o f illu stra tio n , a n ­
nual b lack  h ires ran g ed  from  4 to 28 d u rin g  those y ears , w hile 
annual w hite h ires ran ged  from  135 to 5 6 0 . T h e s e  h irin g  
figures resu lted  in  a v irtu ally  all-w hite D e p a rtm e n t. T h e  T a sk  
Force on  the P o lice  R e p o rt o f  the P re s id e n t’s C o m m iss io n  on 
Law  E n fo rce m e n t and A d m in istra tio n  o f  Ju s t ic e  (1 9 6 7 )  gave



100a

the stark  figu res for 19 5 3 : 3 ,5 6 5  w h ite  p a tro lm en , 9 6  b lack  
p a tro lm en . T h e  su p erv isory  ran ks w ere v irtu a lly  b a rre n  o f  
b lack s: th ere  w ere 3 b lack  serg ean ts ou t o f  3 4 7  and  one b lack  
lieu ten a n t ou t o f  168 . O v e ra ll, the d ep artm en t w as less th an  
2 .5 %  b lack . In  co n trast, the C ity , a cco rd in g  to the 19 5 0  ce n ­
sus, w as 1 6 %  n on -w h ite . E v e n  in clu d in g  the m etro p o lita n  
a re a , the n on -w h ite  p op u lation  w as 1 2 % .

T h e  few b lack s who w ere h ired  w ere strictly  segregated . 
M o st b lack s w ere on the “ p atro l s id e”  as opposed to  the “ in ­
v estig ativ e side. ’ ’ T h a t  is, m ost w ere u n ifo rm  officers assigned  
to v ariou s p recin cts  as opposed to b e in g  n o n -u n ifo rm  officers 
a ss ig n e d  to  v a r io u s  in v e s t ig a tiv e  b u r e a u s .8 W ith in  th e  
p re c in ct, b lacks w ere p erm itted  to p atro l clearly  d efin ed  areas 
on ly . S co u t cars w ere sim ilarly  seg reg ated . B la ck  o fficers w ere 
re leg ated  to a few d esignated  scou t cars w hich  w ere for b lacks 
on ly . B la ck  officers had  to w alk a b ea t for m an y  y ears u ntil a 
v a ca n cy  opened  up in  one o f  the b lack  cars. J u n io r  w hite o f­
ficers had  an easier tim e o b ta in in g  scout ca r  assig n m en ts since 
th ere  w ere far g reater n u m b ers o f  w h ite-on ly  scou t cars. T h e  
on ly  tim e that w hites and b lacks rode to g eth er in scou t cars, 
even  on tem p orary  assig n m en ts, w as w hen  the w hite o fficer 
co n sen ted . In  ad d itio n , w hite  o fficers w ere  o cca sio n a lly  
assig n ed  to rid e w ith  b lack s as a fo rm  o f  p u n ish m en t. 
A ssig n m en ts in  the station  hou se w ere g en erally  reg ard ed  as 
d esirab le . H ow ev er, b lacks w ere re leg ated  to m en ia l jo b s  
w hich  involved little  co n tact w ith  the g en era l p u b lic  —  jo b s  
such  as lock in g  up p rison ers an d  p erfo rm in g  ja n ito r ia l fu n c­
tions.

S im ila r  segregation  took p lace on  the “ in v estig ative s id e .” 
B la ck  in v estig ators w ere team ed  only  w ith  b lack s and w orked

These divisions have historically existed within the Department. The 
“ police side” and the “ investigation side” were distinct and had distinct 
lines of command.



101a

alm ost exclu sive ly  in b lack  areas. W h e n  they  w orked in  a 
w hite p a rt o f  tow n, th e ir  fu n ctio n  was on ly  to  arrest b lacks. 
So m e in v estig ative  b u reau s su ch  as R o b b e ry  an d  A u to  w ere 
o ff-lim its to b lack s a ltog eth er.

A s in d icated , ab o v e , there  w ere on ly  a h an d fu l o f  b lack  
sergeants and  lieu ten an ts. H ow ev er, they  w ere n o t deem ed 
good en o u g h  to  su pervise w hites. T h e y  w ere , accord in g ly , 
p erm itted  o n ly  to  oversee b la ck  p atro lm en . In  co n tra st, w hite 
officers o f  in ferio r ran k  w ould occasion ally  su pervise su p erior 
officers w ho w ere b lack .

T h e  p ern iciou s effect o f  this seg reg ation  on  b lack s is vividly 
shown b y  “ in te g ra tio n ”  o f  police  ra id s on  illegal la te -n ig h t 
g am b lin g  an d  d rin k in g  e s ta b lish m en ts  k n ow n  as “ b lin d  
p ig s .”  W h e re  these estab lish m en ts w ere b la ck -o p e ra te d , it 
was im p ossib le  for w hite u n d erco v er officers to gain  ad m it­
tance to th em  to ob serv e the illegal activ ity , m ak e b u y s, and 
preserve ev id en ce u n til o th er officers com p leted  the ra id . O u t 
o f n ecess ity , b la ck  o fficers w ere u sed  fo r th is p u rp ose. 
H ow ever, p resen t P o lice  C h ie f  W illia m  L . H a r t ’ s testim on y 
showed vividly  how  b lack  officers w ere used  on ly  to  the exten t 
necessary . T h e ir  ro le  in  the raid  ended a fter  en try  by the 
raid ing w hite o fficers. T h e  w hite o fficers refu sed  to ea t w ith 
the b lack  officers an d  often  exclu d ed  them  from  the n orm al 
processing  o f  co n tra b a n d . A fter the ra id , the b la ck  officers 
w ere re tu rn ed  to th e ir  segregated  b eats . T h e  effect o f  such 
stig m atization  on  b la ck  officers can  on ly  b e  su rm ised , b u t it 
was d ou btless con sid erab le .

E q u ally  im p o rtan t w as the p ern ic io u s effect o f  seg reg ation  
upon the p u b lic  safety . S o  d eeply in g ra in ed  w as p re ju d ice  
against b lack  officers th at i f  a b lack  o fficer assigned  to  a p atro l 
car was ou t sick, only  b lack s cou ld  b e  used as fill-ins. I f  no 
black o fficer w as av ailab le  to fill-in , the ca r  w ould n ot go out 
that day. S im ila rly , if  a  “ b la c k ”  p atro l c a r  w as out o f  service, 
the b lack  o fficers w ho used it w ould be assigned  to go on  foot



102a

p atro l. T h is  was so even  if  a ‘ ‘w h ite ’ ’ p atro l c a r  w as ly in g  idle. 
In  b o th  cases, the p u blic  w as deprived  o f  the b en efit o f  a scout 
c a r  p atro l. P o lice  d isp atch ers w ere in stru cted  n ev er to send 
b lack  cru isers in to w hite n eig h b orh ood s. I f  there w as a  situ a ­
tio n  o f  great d an g er —  a so-called  “ hot r u n ,”  —  the n earest 
p a tro l c a r  w ould n orm ally  be im m ed iate ly  ord ered  to the 
scen e. H o w ev er, if  the d istu rb an ce  re q u ir in g  im m ed ia te  a t­
te n tio n  took p lace in a w hite n eig h b o rh o o d , the “ no b lacks 
a llow ed ”  ru le took  p reced en ce , even  if  a w hite c ru ise r  was 
m o re  d istan t.

3. Em ploym ent Practices 1 9 5 4 -6 0

T h in g s  rem ain ed  m u ch  the w ay they  are d escribed  above 
th ro u g h o u t the 1 9 5 0 ’s. B etw een  19 5 4  an d  1960  the D e p a rt­
m en t h ired  1210  w hites and 51 b lack s. In  D e ce m b e r  o f  19 6 0 , 
the U .S .  C o m m iss io n  on  C iv il R ig h ts  held  h e a r in g s  in 
D e tro it . M r . A rth u r L . Jo h n s o n , then  E x e cu tiv e  S e c re ta ry  o f 
the D e tro it  B ra n c h  o f  the N A A C P , p resen ted  forcefu l testi­
m o n y  reg ard in g  d elib erate  police b ru ta lity  ag a in st the b lack  
co m m u n ity . M r . G . N elson  S m ith , C o m m u n ity  Serv ices 
A ssistan t, D e tro it U rb a n  L eag u e  p resen ted  specific  testim on y  
reg a rd in g  d iscrim in atio n  ag ain st b lacks w ith in  the D e p a rt­
m en t. F o rm e r  b lack  officers in the D e p a rtm e n t co rro b o ra te d  
this testim on y . T h e  above testim on y  co n trasted  sharp ly  w ith 
th at the C h ie f  o f  P o lice  (th en  called  P o lice  C o m m issio n er) 
H e n ry  H a rt who p ain ted  a rosy p ictu re  o f  the P o lice  D e p a rt­
m en t and its p ractices.

T h e  d ata  p resen ted  b y  the C h ie f  o f  P o lice  at the 1 9 6 0  h e a r­
ings reg ard in g  b lack  em p loy m en t w as as follow s: 134  ou t o f 
the 4 3 5 7  officers on  the force w ere b lack  —  slightly  ov er 3 % . 
T h e r e  w ere six b lack  serg ean ts and no b lack  lieu ten an ts. In  
co n trast to these figu res, the W a y n e  C o u n ty  S h e r if f s  D e p a rt­
m en t was n early  3 0 %  b lack . T h is  d ifferen ce was u n exp la in ed , 
and  is d ifficu lt to ju s tify , especially  given that recru its for b o th



103a

the D e tro it  P o lice  D e p a rtm e n t an d  th e  W a y n e  C o u n ty  
S h e r if fs  D e p a rtm e n t receiv e  s im ilar tra in in g .

A s o f  D e ce m b e r  1 9 5 8 , a D e tro it  U rb a n  L e a g u e  survey o f 
the D e p artm e n t (su m m arized  in  the hearin gs) showed that little 
had ch an g ed  since the 1943  R io t . T h e  D e p a rtm e n t w as 3 %  
b lack , b la ck  o fficers w ere segregated  in scou t ca rs , in b eats 
and in p a rtn e r  assig n m en ts . O f  the 13 p recin cts , 5 had no 
blacks assigned  to  th em  w hile 85 %  o f  all b lack  officers w ere 
assigned to  5 o th er  p re c in c ts .9 *

B y  the tim e o f  the C iv il R ig h ts  C o m m issio n  H e a rin g s  in 
1960 , h ow ev er, the D e p a rtm e n t w as slowly b eg in n in g  to 
desegregate. T h e  first steps w ere ta k en  in  M a r c h , 1959  w hen 
the D e p a rtm e n t in itia ted  a p ro g ram  to d esegregate scout cars. 
T h is  p ro g ram  w as strongly opposed by w hite officers. In  p ro­
test, the officers staged a so-called  “ blu e flu e”  protest action  by 
going on  a tick et strik e. T h e  day a fter  the squ ad  c a r  in te g ra ­
tion policy  w as an n o u n ced , the w riting  o f  tra ffic  su m m on ses 
dropped to 1 0 %  o f  the n u m b e r n orm ally  issued. G iv e n  the 
opposition b y  w hite o fficers, d eseg reg atio n  p ro ceed ed  slowly. 
B y  D e ce m b e r  1 9 6 0 , C h ie f  o f  P o lice  H a rt  w as ab le  to  testify  
before the C o m m iss io n  th at 24  o f  the D e p a rtm e n t’s 118  scout 
car crew s w ere in teg ra ted . In  ad d itio n , som e in teg ra tio n  o f 
p recincts had  b een  ach ieved .

9 It is true that then Chief of Police Herbert Hart testified before the
Civil Rights Commission in 1960 that 30 out of 134 black patrolmen 
(over 25% ) were assigned to desirable bureau assignments as opposed to 
only 5% for whites. An examination of the breakdown provided by the 
Chief reveals that no blacks were assigned to such major bureaus as Rob­
bery, Auto, and Breaking and Entering. And, Deputy Chief Bannon 
pointed out that blacks who served in the Bureaus were given lowly 
assignments which generated low service ratings.



104a

4. Em ploym ent Practices 1 9 6 0 -6 7

T h e  d eseg reg atio n  o f  the D e p a rtm e n t co n tin u e d  in the 
1 9 6 0 ’s, b u t a t a sn a il’ s p a ce . D is c r im in a to ry  sco u t ca r  
assig n m en ts con tin u ed  to b e  m ad e; in so m e p re cin cts  scout 
cars rem ain e d  segregated  u ntil the m id -1 9 6 0 ’s. In te g ra tio n  o f 
in v estig ative b u reau s and  u nits w as n o t ach iev ed  u n til the 
m id -1 9 6 0 ’s. S im ila rly , it w as the m id -1 9 6 0 ’s b efore  b lack s on 
the p atro l side w ere first allow ed to  su p erv ise w hites, even  
w hites o f  in ferior r a n k s .10 G e o rg e  E d w ard s, now  C h ie f  Ju d g e  
o f  the U n ited  S ta tes C o u rt o f  A p p eals for the S ix th  C irc u it , 
stepped dow n from  the M ic h ig a n  S u p re m e  C o u r t to b eco m e 
D e tro it  P o lice  C o m m issio n er in 19 6 2 . A s C o m m iss io n e r  in 
1962 and  19 6 3 , Ju d g e  E d w ard s tried  to im p lem en t ch an g es. 
H e  issued orders to  fully in teg ra te  the D e p a rtm e n t. S u b se ­
q u e n t C o m m issio n ers tried  to do the sam e th in g , w ith  “ less 
th an  sp ectacu lar su ccess” 11

T h e  p rincip al o b stacle  th rou g h o u t these efforts w as the 
stu b b o rn  resistan ce o f  w hite p olice  o fficers. A s la te  as 1969  
m assiv e resistan ce to in teg ratio n  w as still tak in g  p lace . T h e  
testim on y  o f D ep u ty  C h ie f  J a m e s  B a n n o n  w as p articu larly  
vivid : In  1969  he w as m ad e co m m a n d in g  o fficer o f  the N a r­
cotics B u re a u . H e  found th at h e  needed  b lack  officers to help 
in vestiag e the grow ing ab u se o f  drugs in  the b lack  co m m u n i­
ty . H e  asked fo r and  receiv ed  p erm ission  to tra n sfer in to  the 
N arco tics  D iv isio n  six b lack  o fficers. U p o n  th e ir a rriv a l, the 
b lack  officers m et w ith severe h ositility  an d  a  cam p aig n  o f 
h arassm en t. In  ad d ition , they w ere su b jected  to g reat d an ger 
b ecau se in fo rm atio n  ab o u t the ir assig n m en ts w as leaked  to 
people in  the dru g u n d erw orld . N ot w ish ing  to b e  “  m a rty rs , ’ ’ 
the m en  req u ested  tran sfer out o f  the d iv ision . B a n n o n  p e r­
suaded them  to stay on , bu t w as u n ab le  to fully resolve the

10 On the investigative side, blacks were supervising whites a bit earlier, 
in the early 1960s.

11 Testimony of Deputy C hiefjam es Bannon, at 5091.



105a

con flict u n til he re s tru ctu re d  the N a rco tics  B u re a u  and 
facilitated  som e tran sfers an d  re tirem en ts .

Ju s t  as th ere  w as som e p rogress in d eseg reg atin g  the D e ­
p artm en t in the 1 9 6 0 ’s, so there  w as som e progress in h irin g  
m ore b lack  o fficers. B etw een  1961 and 19 6 6 , the D e p artm e n t 
hired 1 ,0 8 0  w hite and  8 6  b lack  ( 7 .4 % )  police o fficers. In  1967 , 
an ad d itional 252  w hite and  71 b lack  ( 2 2 % )  police o fficers 
were h ired . P rog ress w as slow , how ever. T h e  D ep artm en t 
was no m o re  than  6 %  b lack  in 19 6 7 . T h e  n u m b er o f  b lacks 
holding co m m an d  ran ks was truly  m in iscu le. In  19 6 7 , there 
were 3 3 9  w hite and n in e (9 )  b lack  sergean ts ( 2 .5 % ) ,  156 w hite 
and two (2 )  b lack  lieu ten an ts ( 1 .3 % )  an d  62  w hites and 
(1) one b lack  ab ov e the ran k  o f  lieu ten an t.

5. The D epartm ent’s R elations w ith the B lack  Community

T h is  C o u rt has p reviously  noted  the h arsh , stig m atiz in g  
segregation  w hich  the D e p a rtm e n t im posed  u pon b lack  police 
officers up to the m id -1 9 6 0 ’s. It is not su rp risin g  that this sam e 
d epartm ent w ould treat m em b ers o f  the b lack  com m u n ity  
with con tem p t s im ilar to or w orse than  that d isplayed tow ard 
its own b lack  officers. T h e n  N A A C P  G e n e ra l C o u n se l T h u r- 
good M a rsh a ll in an  ex cerp t qu oted  ea rlie r  in this op in ion , 
supra, co m m en ted  on u n eq u al police p ractices d u rin g  the 1943 
riot. T h e  ev id en ce reveals that since at least that tim e, the 
relationship betw een the D ep artm en t and the b lack  com m u nity  
was one o f  m u tu al h atred  and su spicion .

T h e  testim on y  o f  A rth u r L . Jo h n s o n  o f  the N A A C P  before 
the C iv il R ig h ts  C o m m issio n  in 1960  su m m ed  up the situ a­
tion qu ite well:

R e la tio n s  betw een  the N egro  co m m u n ity  and the police 
in D etro it are  not good. T h e y  are  ch aracte rized  by p ersist­
ent con flict and ten sio n . N eg roes do not gen erally  regard  
the police as b e in g  friend ly  and  resp ectfu l. T h e y  see the



106a

police as b e in g  an tag o n istic  and o ften  w illing  in s tru m e n ­
ta lities in  the racia l seg reg ation  a im s o f  the d o m in a n t w hite 
co m m u n ity .

T h e  attitu d e o f  police tow ard N eg roes in  D e tro it  was 
d em o n stra ted  in  the sensation al p o lice-tick e tin g  strik e in 
M a rc h  19 5 9 . T h is  act o f  reb ellio n  w as b ro u g h t on  as a p art 
o f  police  op p osition  to lim ited , in itia l p lans o f  in teg ra tin g  
scou t cars in D e tro it. T h e  d em o n stra tio n s w ere so w ide­
spread  th at for a b r ie f  p eriod  a v irtu al crisis w as crea ted  in 
the police d ep artm en t.

E m p lo y m en t d iscrim in atio n , w hich  figu red  in the tick e t­
in g  strik e, reflects b asic a ttitu d es and  a d m in stra tio n  policy  
in the police d ep artm en t. T h e  w eak p osition  o f  N eg ro  p er­
so nn el in  the d ep artm en t is r in g in g  p ro o f o f  the scop e and  
grav ity  o f  this p ractice .

A t absolu tely  no p oin t in th e ir ex p erien ce  do N eg roes in 
D e tro it  see the law en fo rcem en t ag en cy  as b e in g  tru ly  co lor 
b lin d . . .

I f  a  b asic  police policy  does not ex ist su p p ortin g  co n ta in ­
m en t, in tim id atio n  and  g en eral m is tre a tm en t o f  N egroes, 
there ex ist, with the sam e effect, very  stro n g  a n ti-N e g ro , 
an ti-in teg ration , and anti-civ il rights practices and  attitudes 
w hich  d om inate the D e tro it P o lice  D e p a rtm e n t’s im ag e in 
the N eg ro  com m u n ity .

I t  ca n  be said , qu ite possibly w ithou t co n tra d ic tio n , that 
no responsible N egro citizen in D etro it would have difficulty 
re la tin g  at least one personal en co u n ter  or ob serv atio n  
w hich  w ould support the b asic  ch arg es b e in g  m ad e h ere .

U n d erly in g  the eru p tion  o f  police b ru ta lity  an d  the te n ­
sions betw een  police and the N egro  co m m u n ity  are several 
specific an d  related  offenses. N egroes co m p la in  o f  illegal 
and u nreason able arrests, o f  ind iscrim in ate and open search ­
ing o f  th e ir person  on  the p u blic streets , o f  d isresp ectfu l and



107a

profane lan g u ag e , o f  d ero g ato ry  re feren ces to  th e ir race  and 
co lor, o f  in terfere n ce  w ith p erson al in terra c ia l association s, 
and o f  v io len t, in tim id a tin g  police reactio n s to th e ir protests 
against im p ro p er tre a tm e n t. N egroes in  all classes m ake 
these co m p la in ts , for the offenses are  d irected  ag ain st 

N egroes as a group.

T h e  police b ru ta lity  p ro b lem  is a d irect result o f  the anti- 
N egro a ttitu d es and  p ractices and th e ir re lated  con flicts and 
tensions w hich  p erm e ate  re la tio n s betw een  the police and 
the N eg ro  co m m u n ity .

W illis W a rd , an  assistan t U .S .  A tto rn ey  in  D e tro it , w ho is 
now a p ro b a te  ju d g e  in  D e tro it , sh ared  M r . Jo h n s o n ’s co n ­
cerns. H e  an d  co n cern ed  w hite c itizen s got tog eth er w ith  the 
leaders o f  the b lack  com m u nity  and  rapidly reached  the con clu ­
sion that th in gs w ere n ot rig ht. H e  rep eated  these con clu sions 
in testim on y b efo re  the C iv il R ig h ts  C o m m issio n :

1) T h e  police d ep artm en t seem s to b e  w ork in g  u n d er a 
program  o f  co n ta in m e n t o f  the N eg ro  c itizen  by  bru te 
force, and  the d isco u rag em en t o f  law ful and  m o ra l co m m u ­
nication s and  co m m in g lin g  o f  the w hite and co lored  citizens 
by h az in g  su ch  grou p s; 2 ) the police d ep artm en t considers 
the N eg ro  c itizen  as a second  class in  statu s; 3 ) only  a 
rep resen tativ e and  token  n u m b e r o f  N eg roes should be 
taken in to  the police d ep artm en t; and  4 ) the N eg ro  police 
officer is to lera ted  by  his fellow  officers, b u t not accep ted  as 
an o fficer o f  the law .

M r. W a rd  spoke those w ords in 1960 . Y e t  relations betw een 
the b lack  co m m u n ity  an d  the P o lice  D e p a rtm e n t rem ain ed  
poor for m an y  years th e rea fter . T e s tim o n y  at tria l revealed  
that there  w as b asis for the b la ck  co m m u n ity ’s ch arg es o f  
police abu se. A  n u m b e r o f  b lack  o fficers, for in stan ce , testified  
at trial ab ou t v ariou s in cid en ts w here they  observ ed  police 
m isconduct and  abu se tow ards b lack s. E a c h  in d icated  that the



108a

ab u siv e p ractice  in  q u estion  w as racia lly  m otiv ated  and  that 
they  did not rep ort the in cid en t at the tim e for fear o f  rep risal 
by  w hite officers.

O n e  b lack  o fficer v iolated  the cod e o f  silen ce  an d  paid  the 
p rice . H e  observ ed  a w hite o fficer b ru ta lly  b e a tin g  a b lack  
you th  in  a garage at the second  p recin ct in S e p te m b e r  o f 1965 . 
P u rsu a n t to the code, he covered  up the in cid en t in an  in itia l 
re p o rt. U p o n  b e in g  pressed  by the C itiz e n s  C o m p la in t 
B u re a u , how ever, the o fficer gave a tru th fu l and  d eta iled  a c ­
co u n t o f  w hat had h ap p en ed . W o rd  th at he had  “ sq u ea led ”  
leaked  ou t. R e tr ib u tio n  from  w hite o fficers w as sw ift. H e  was 
v erb a lly  abu sed  and  his ca r  w as vand alized . In  ad d itio n , he 
a lo n e am o n g  the officers involved  w as d iscip lin ed  by the 
d ep artm en t for su bm ittin g  the (in itia lly ) false rep ort ab o u t the 
in cid en t. T h e  con trov ersy  w as finally  settled  by  the M ich ig a n  
C iv il R ig h ts  C o m m issio n , w hich found a v io la tio n  o f  the o f­
f ic e r ’ s civil rights: “ T h e  ind iv idual acts o f  v io la tion  and  
h arassm e n t by persons believed  by [the co m p la in an t] to have 
b een  fellow  o ffice rs . . . ap p ear to be c lear and  obviou s acts o f  
rac ia l an tag o n ism , stem m in g  from  his v io lation  o f  the ‘B lu e 
C u r ta in ’ p ra c t ic e .” 12

6. T he 1 9 6 7  R iot

A n tag o n ism  betw een  the P o lice  D e p a rtm e n t and  the b lack  
co m m u n ity  w as a roo t cause o f the D e tro it  rio t in 19 6 7 . T h e  
19 6 8  R e p o rt o f  the N ation al A dvisory C o m m issio n  on  C iv il 
D isord ers noted the “ long h istory  o f con flict betw een  the 
police d ep artm en t and c itiz e n s”  in D e tro it . C o m m issio n  
su rv e y s  fo u n d  th a t p o lice  p ra c t ic e s  w ere  a s ig n if ic a n t  
g riev an ce in all rio t-to rn  cities. T h e  C o m m issio n  app rovin gly  
cited  a  survey by  the D e tro it  U rb a n  L ea g u e  w hich  found that

12 The author of this opinion was Julian Abele Cook, J r . ,  now a Federal 
District Judge.



109a

police b ru ta lity  h ead ed  the list o f  g riev ances w h ich  the b lack  
respondents th o u g h  h ad  led to  the rio t.

T h e  C o m m iss io n ’s overall con clu sio n  th a t “ deep hostility  
betw een police and  ghetto  co m m u n ities [was] a  p rim ary  cause 
o f the d iso rd ers”  is certa in ly  co rre ct reg ard in g  D e tro it . T h is  
court has p reviou sly  co m m en ted  on  police p ractices an d  the 
1943 rio t. In  1961 Ju d g e  E d w ard s, then  a Ju s t ic e  o f  the 
M ich ig an  S u p re m e  C o u r t, con sid ered  D e tro it  as “ the lead in g  
candidate in  the U n ite d  S ta tes  for a ra ce  r io t .” 13 In  1 9 6 5 , in  a 
prophetic a rtic le  in  the M ichigan  L a w  Review , Ju d g e  Ed w ard s 
noted the co n tin u ed  p ro b lem  o f  p o lice-b lack  co m m u n ity  re la ­
tions, w h ich  he reg ard ed  as “ the m a jo r  p ro b lem  in  law  e n ­
forcem ent in this d eca d e”  and  as “ the m a jo r  cause o f  all re ­
cent race  r io ts .” 14

In  the su m m er o f  19 6 6  th e re  o ccu rred  a relative ly  m in o r 
disorder in  the b lack  co m m u n ity  called  the “ K erch e v a l In c i­
d e n t.”  A  crow d gath ered  at the scen e o f  a police stop. 
T em p ers flared  an d  a w hite o fficer stru ck  a  b lack  citizen  in  the 
eye, d etach in g  it from  its socket. R o ck s  and  b rick s b eg an  to 
fly. S u p p o rtin g  police u n its  w ere su m m on ed  an d  the scene 
soon retu rn ed  to  n o rm al. T h is  in cid en t, how ever, w as the h a r­
b inger o f th in gs to  com e.

T h e  J u ly  1967 D e tro it  rio t w as, u n su rp risin g ly , triggered  
by an en co u n ter b etw een  b la ck  c itizen s and  the police. T h e  
1968 N atio n a l A d v iso ry  C o m m iss io n  on  C iv il D isord ers 
outlined w hat h ap p en ed . T h e  police ra id ed  a “ b lin d  p ig ”  in  a 
black n eig h b orh ood  in w h ich  a ce le b ra tio n  w as b e in g  held  to 
w elcom e h om e b lack  serv icem en  re tu rn in g  fro m  V ie tn a m .

13 Report of the National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders 85 
(Bantam Ed. 1968).

14 See Edwards, Order an d  C iv il L ib erties : A C om plex R o le  f o r  the Police. 64 
M ich.L.Rev. 54-55 (1965).



110a

T h e r e  w ere m an y  m ore p ersons at the “ b lin d  p ig ”  th an  the 
police had  exp ected , and  an  h ou r w ent by b efo re  ev ery o n e a r ­
rested  cou ld  b e  m oved  to the police station . In  the m ean w h ile , 
a la rg er crow d gatered  w hich  got too b ig  fo r the p o lice  to 
h an d le . T h e  crow d w en t on a ra m p a g e . F o r  five days 
th e rea fter , D e tro it  exp erien ced  m a jo r  rac ia l v io len ce . F o rty - 
three persons died, 72 0 0  persons w ere a rreste d , 6 8 3  stru ctu res 
w ere d estroyed  by  fire . T h e  police proved  in ad eq u ate  to deal 
w ith  the v io lence and the city  w as occu p ied  by 5 0 0 0  M ic h ig a n  
N atio n a l G u ard sm en  and 2 7 0 0  reg u lar arm y  p ara tro o p ers. 
T h e  h o rro r an d  in ten sity  o f the v io len ce is fu lly  d escribed  in 
the “ R io t ”  C o m m iss io n ’s re p o r t ;15 th ere  is no  need  to rep eat 
the details here.

7. T he Detroit Police D epartm ent 1 9 6 7 -6 8  

A  shaken city slowly recu p erated  from  the rio t. A t the tim e 
o f  the rio t, the city  w as alm ost 4 0 %  b lack . T h e  P o lice  D e p a rt­
m en t w as no m ore than  6 %  b lack  and its co m m an d  stru ctu re  
w as v irtu ally  all w hite. T h e  C ity  w as h ard  h it by the rea liza ­
tion  th at a police d ep artm en t w hose racia l co m p o sitio n  w as so 
grossly  d isp ro p o rtio n ate  to the p o p u la tio n  it served  was 
u n d esirab le  and u n accep tab le  to  the b lack  co m m u n ity . E x ­
ecu tiv e  D ep u ty  C h ie f  o f  P o lice  B a n n o n , w ho h ad  b een  in the 
D e p a rtm e n t since 19 4 9 , testified  at tria l that the rio t co n ­
vin ced  people in and out o f  the D e p a rtm e n t, m an y  for the first 
tim e , th at the P o lice  D e p a rtm e n t cou ld  n ot do its jo b  e ffectiv e­
ly w ith so few b lack  officers. D e tro it ’s M a y o r  at the tim e, 
Je r o m e  P . C a v a n a u g h , reach ed  the sam e co n clu sio n : “ It 
b eca m e obviou s to m e and  this en tire  co m m u n ity , b o th  b lack  
and w hite, that this p ro p ortion  o f  N eg ro  p o licem en  ( 6 % )  was

See Report of the National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders 
84-108 (Bantam Ed. 1968).



111a

clearly  u n a c c e p ta b le .” 16 T h e  need  for m ore b lack  officers at 
all levels o f  police  d ep artm en ts in  g en eral w as a key fin d in g  o f 
both the N atio n a l A d v isory  C o m m issio n  on C iv il D iso rd e rs17 
and the 1967  P re s id e n t’s C r im e  C o m m issio n  R e p o r t .18

W h y  w as the P o lice  D e p a rtm e n t so overw h elm in gly  w hite? 
A  key reason  is th at the h ir in g  p rocess had  b een  riddled  w ith 
d iscrim in ation  for y ears. T h e  ap p lica tio n  and  h irin g  process 
for a jo b  as police o fficer in 1 9 6 8  con sisted  o f  five stages. (T h e  
stages in  the p rocess h ave rem ain e d  b asica lly  the sam e since 
then and  w ere b asica lly  the sam e b efo re  th e n ). A n  ap p lican t 
first filled ou t a  p re lim in ary  ap p lica tio n  card  and  w as screened  
as to the D e p a rtm e n t’s n in e  p re lim in a ry  q u alifica tio n s, such 
as h e ig h t an d  w eig h t lim its , e d u c a tio n , an d  v is io n  re ­
q u irem en ts. T h e  second  step w as a  w ritten  e x a m in a tio n . I f  
the can d id ate passed  he or she w as schedu led  for a p h ysical e x ­
am in ation . F o llow in g  su ccessfu l com p letion  o f  the p hysical 
exam in atio n , a  b a ck g ro u n d  in v estig ation  w as in itia ted . T h e  
final step w as for th e  ca n d id a te  to  a p p e a r b e fo re  th ree  
m em bers o f  the D e p a rtm e n t for an  in terv iew . T h is  O ra l 
Board  m ak es the fin a l decision  w h eth er the ap p lican t w ould be 
offered em p loy m en t as a  police officer.

D iscrim in a tio n  in  the h ir in g  p rocess existed  at all levels. 
F irst, the D e p a rtm e n t used a  w ritten  ex a m  o f  several hours 
duration  w h ich  b lack  fa iled  at a m u ch  h ig h er ra te  th an  w hites. 
In  1967 , for exam p le  the b lack  fa ilu re ra te  w as tw ice the w hite 
failure ra te . T h e  reason  for the d isp arity  in p assin g  rates for

16 Special Task Force Report on Recruiting and Hiring 3 (1968) (ex­
hibit 8).

17 See Report of the National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders 
315-18 (Bantam Ed. 1968).

18 See The President’s Comm, on Law Enforcement and Administration 
ofjustice: T ask  Force R eport: T h eP o lic e  167-175 (1967) (hereinafter cited as 
Task Force R eport).



112a

b la ck  and  w hite officers is th a t the ex a m  w as an  I .Q .  test 
w h ich  w as not jo b -re la te d . In  o th er w ord s, it did n ot m easu re  
w h eth er a can d id ate  would m ake a  good p olice  o fficer. I t  did, 
how ever, d isqu alify  larg e n u m b ers o f  b la ck  a p p lican ts. T h e  
D e p a rtm e n t w as well aw are o f  this fact b u t co n tin u ed  to use 
this test for y e a rs .19 S eco n d , the h rin g  system  fac ilita te d  su b ­
je c t iv e  d ecis io n m ak in g  w h ich , in p ra ctice , o p erated  to  the 
d etrim en t o f  b lack  ap p lican ts. T h is  w as tru e  in  tw o resp ects: 
o ra l b oard s used to q u estion  and  screen  ap p lican ts, and 
b ack g ro u n d  in v estig ation s o f  a p p lica n ts .20 T h ir d , b lack s w ere 
d is p r o p o r t io n a te ly  a f fe c te d  b y  p r e l im in a r y  s c r e e n in g . 
P re lim in a ry  screen in g  took p lace w hen an  a p p lican t for 
em p lo y m en t first “ cam e th rou g h  the d o o r .”  I f  the ap p lican t 
did  n ot m eet certa in  strict req u irem e n ts , —  age, ed u ca tio n , 
h e ig h t, w eight, vision and  m arita l statu s, th en  h e w ould be 
tu rn ed  dow n im m ed iately . H o w ev er, a n  in v estig atio n  by  the 
C o m m iss io n  on  C o m m u n ity  R e la tio n s  in D e tro it  fou nd  that 
in  1 9 5 9 , 178 w hites b u t only  36  b lacks w ere p erm itted  to p ro ­
gress p ast p re lim in ary  screen in g  even  th o u g h  th ey  failed  one 
or m ore p re lim in ary  screen in g  req u irem e n ts . T h e  C o m m is ­
sion  fou nd that w hite ap p lican ts w ere fa v o red .21

19 See T a sk  Force R eport, supra at 169. Other changes were made in the 
entry exam in years following. They will be discussed below.

20 See T ask  Force R eport, supra  at 169. Background investigators were 
mostly white. For example, in 1968 eight out of ten investigators were 
white.

21 The subjective, haphazard hiring system’s anti-black effects are also il­
lustrated by the Cadet Training Program. This program was for young 
men 18-20 who aspired to become police officers at 21. Those who served 
as cadets received preferential treatment in hiring. While in theory 
anyone could apply, the program was not advertised and most of the 
cadets learned of the program through word-of-mouth referral. The 
result was that large numbers of cadets were sons of police officers and 
ninety percent of the cadets were white. This program was phased out in 
the early 1970’s.



113a

O n e  o th er facto r b ears e x a m in a tio n  at th is p oin t —  the e f­
fect o f  the P o lice  D e p a rtm e n t’s rep u ta tio n . T h e  testim on y  in 
this case ov erw h elm in g ly  show s th a t th e  P o lice  D e p a rtm e n t 
had a h o rrib le  rep u ta tio n  in  the b la ck  co m m u n ity  in 1 9 6 7 -6 8  
and for y ears b efo re  th a t. T h e  ev id en ce show s th a t th is  re p u ta ­
tion , b u ilt o n  y ears  o f  ab u se  an d  h ostility , op erated  to d eter 
blacks from  ap p ly in g  to  th e  P o lice  D e p a rtm e n t for em p lo y ­
m ent. A t the sam e tim e , th e  sta tistica l ev id ence tended  to 
show th at b lack s applied  to  the P o lice  D e p a rtm e n t in  n u m b ers  
m ore th an  re flectin g  th e ir  sh are o f  the p o p u la tio n . T h e  C o m ­
m ission on  C o m m u n ity  R e la tio n s  fou nd th is to be tru e  in 
1 9 5 9 .22 T h e  D e tro it  S p ecia l T a s k  F o rce  R e p o rt  on  R e c ru itin g  
and H irin g  fou nd  th at in  1 9 6 7 , 4 7 %  o f  the ap p lican ts to the 
D ep artm en t w ere b la ck  w hile on ly  4 0 %  o f  the c ity ’ s p op u la­
tion at the tim e w as b lack . T h u s , desp ite d iscrim in atio n  and  
abuse, b lack s applied  to  the D e p a rtm e n t in  larg e n u m b ers. 
T h is  appears to b e  co n tra d ic to ry . A n  an sw er to th is p arad o x  is 
that em p loy m en t w ith  the P o lice  D e p a rtm e n t h as h istorica lly  
been a w ay in  w hich  the poor h ave clim bed  ou t o f  poverty . 
B lacks w ere foreclosed  from  m an y  jo b s ;  m a n y  o f  th em  ap ­
parently d ecid ed  to  apply  to th e  P o lice  D e p a rtm e n t desp ite its 
rep utation  and  desp ite  in ferio r w ork in g  con d itio n s for b lack s 
within th e  D e p a rtm e n t. A b sen t d iscrim in a tio n , how ever, it is 
logical th at m a n y  m o re  b lack s w ould h ave applied .

8. 1 9 6 7 - 1 9 7 4  Em ploym ent Practices o f  the Detroit P olice Department

(a) 1 9 6 7 - 1 9 7 1  Em ploym ent Practices

T h e  C ity  did tak e som e steps to  in crease  the u n co n scio n ­
ably sm all n u m b e r o f  b lack  o fficers. In  1 9 6 8 , M a y o r  C a v a ­
naugh ap p o in ted  a  S p ecia l T a s k  F o rce  on  R e c ru itin g  and  
H iring  to review  D e p a rtm e n ta l p ractices an d  reco m m en d  
changes in  th e m . T h e  M a y o r ’s S p ecia l T a s k  F o rce  recog nized  
the p roblem s w ith m in o rity  re cru itm e n t and  h irin g  and

22 See T ask  F orce R eport, supra  at 169.



114a

reco m m en d ed  a n u m b e r  o f  ch an g es. R e c o m m e n d a tio n s  to 
im p rov e the D e p a rtm e n t’s re cru itm e n t o f  m in o rities  also 
ca m e from  a co m m ittee  o f  in d u strial p sy chologists know n as 
th e  V ic k e ry  C o m m itte e .

A  n u m b er o f  these C o m m iss io n s’ reco m m e n d a tio n s w ere 
ad op ted . D e p a rtm e n t standards reg ard in g  re je c tio n  for T r a f ­
fic  R e c o rd s , P o lice  R e co rd s , M a rita l S ta tu s and  C re d it w ere 
lib era lized . A g e, ed u catio n , h eig h t and  v ision  stan d ard s w ere 
lo osen ed . So m e efforts w ere m ad e to in crease  the n u m b e r  o f 
b la ck  officers involved in the re cu itm en t an d  h ir in g  process. 
T h e  m ost im p o rtan t ch an g e w hich  w as m ad e, h ow ev er, w as in 
th e  w ritten  ex a m . As in d icated  ab o v e , th e  D e p a rtm e n t p rio r 
to  1968  used m u lti-h o u r I .Q .  tests w hich  w ere w idely know n 
to  b e  n o n -jo b -re la ted  and  w hich  b lack s failed  far m o re  often  
th a n  w hites. In  1 9 6 8 , on reco m m e n d atio n  o f  the ab ov e C o m ­
m issio n s, the D e p a rtm e n t rep laced  this exam  w ith  a  1 2 -m in ­
u te  W o n d erlic  ex a m  w hich p u rp orted  to m easu re  p ro b le m ­
solv ing ab ility .

T h e  p arties h ave en tered  into a  sig n ifican t dispute reg a rd ­
in g  the D e p a rtm e n t’s 1 9 6 7 / 6 8 -1 9 7 4  m in o rity  re cru itm e n t 
efforts. T h e  p lain tiffs arg u e th at b e g in n in g  in  1 9 6 9 , the 
D e p a rtm e n t in stitu ted  aggressive efforts to recru it and  h ire  
la rg e  n u m b ers o f  b lack  o fficers. T h e y  arg u e from  th is th at any 
p re -1 9 6 8  d iscrim in atio n  w as fully rem ed ied  and  th e re  was 
thu s no need  for the in stitu tion  o f  the C ity ’s a ffirm ativ e  action  
p ro g ram  in  J u ly  o f  1974 .

T h e  p lain tiffs overstate  b o th  the ex ten t an d  the effect o f  the 
C ity ’s m in o rity  h irin g  efforts from  1 9 6 8 -1 9 7 4 . T h e  p lain tiffs 
re ly  h eav ily  on  the D e tro it P o lice  D e p a rtm e n t E q u a l E m p lo y ­
m en t O p p o rtu n ity  P ro g ra m  R e p o rt ( E E O P ) ,  w ritten  in  N o ­
v em b e r o f 1 9 7 5 , w hich p a in ts  a glow ing p ictu re  o f  the D e p a rt­
m e n t ’s efforts to recru it and  h ire  m in o rity  o fficers. T h e  E E O P  
R e p o r t , how ever, does not re fe r  to the dates w hen ch an g es in 
h ir in g  p ractices took p lace . C a re fu l e x a m in a tio n  o f  the facts



115a

reveals that very  few ch an g es w ere m ad e b etw een  19 6 8  and  
1971 an d  th at ch an g es b eg u n  in 1971 did n ot b eg in  to  show 
results u n til 1 9 7 3 -1 9 7 4 . T h is  w as th e  testim o n y  b o th  o f  
T h o m as G . F erreb e e  who w as m ad e C o m m an d e r o f  the R e ­
cru iting  D ivision  in 19 7 1 , and L ie u ten an t C laren ce  B ro ad n ax , 
who w as assigned  to th e  D iv isio n  in  1 9 6 8  as a  police o fficer 
and has w orked th e re  ev er since .

T h e  testim o n y  o f  C o m m a n d e r F e rre b e e  and  L ie u te n a n t 
B ro ad m ax  show s th at in 1971 th in gs w ere m u ch  as they 
always h ad  b een  at the D e tro it  P o lice  D e p a rtm e n t. W h ite  
ap p lican ts w ere fav ored  in  m a n y  p re lim in a ry  scre en in g  
req u irem en ts. It w as co m m o n  for R e c ru it in g  D iv isio n  ad m in ­
istrators to  ap prove w hite ap p lican ts w ho did n ot m eet arrest 
and m ilita ry  q u a lifica tio n s  as w ell as o th e r  p re lim in a ry  
q u alificatio n s. T h is  seldom  occu rred  in  the case o f  b lack  ap p li­
can ts, for th ere  w ere no b lack s in  the co m m an d  stru ctu re  to 
w hom  a  b la ck  ap p lican t cou ld  tu rn  to ov erru le  a  R e c ru itin g  
D ivision  re je c tio n . A ccess to  th e  p re lim in a ry  ap p lica tion  card  
file w as u n restric ted  and  card s w ere a ltered , o r rem oved  and  
not re tu rn ed . B a ck g ro u n d  in v estig ato rs co n tin u ed  to act 
w ithout an y  acco u n ta b ility  an d  d elivered  su b jectiv e  op in ions 
w hich op erated  to  the d etrim en t o f  b lack  ap p lican ts. T h e  O ra l 
Board s m ad e s im ilar su b jectiv e  a n ti-b la ck  ju d g m e n ts . E v en  
the m ed ical ex am s o p erated  to exclu d e b lack s. A  1971 R e p o rt 
o f the M ic h ig a n  C iv il R ig h ts  C o m m issio n  fou nd  th a t D e p a rt­
m ent p h y sician s an d  p sy ch iatrists freq u en tly  re je c te d  b lack  
applicants on  the b asis o f  in fo rm atio n  w hich  w as d isclosed  not 
through the m ed ical e x a m in a tio n s w hich  th ey  con d u cted , b u t 
in b ack g ro u n d  in v estig ation s. A g a in , the p ro b lem  w as the 
sam e —  the im p act o f  u n co n tro lled  d iscretio n ary  d ecis io n ­
m aking by  w hites, in  this case , w hite p h y sician s.

P erh ap s the m ost d iscrim in ato ry  p art o f  the h irin g  process 
was the w ritten  ex a m in a tio n . A s in d icated  a b o v e , u n til 19 6 8 , 
the D e p a rtm e n t used a  2 F2 -3  h o u r I .Q .  test, the O tis  test,



116a

w hich  d iscrim in ated  heav ily  ag ain st m in o rities . A s an  in terim  
m easu re , the D e p a rtm e n t su bstitu ted  a 1 2 -m in u te  W o n d e rlic  
test in  1 9 6 8 , on  reco m m en d atio n  o f  the V ic k e ry  C o m m iss io n . 
T h e  V ick e ry  C o m m issio n  realized , h ow ev er, th a t the W o n ­
derlic  test also d iscrim in ated  ag ain st b lack s. T h e  C o m m issio n  
hop ed  th at the test w ould be less d iscrim in a to ry  th an  th e  O tis  
test it rep laced  and  reason ed  th at a t least the ord eal for ap p li­
can ts and  p ersons co rre ctin g  the test w ould b e  less. H o w ev er, 
as C o m m a n d e r R ic h a rd  C a re tti , p resen tly  D e p u ty  D ire c to r  o f 
P erso n n el and assigned to the p erson n el d iv ision  since 1968  
testified , the W o n d erlic , like the O tis , screen ed  ou t m in o rities  
at ‘ ‘a  d ram atica lly  d isp arate ra te . ’ ’ T h e  follow ing tab le  shows 
the d iscrim in atory  effect o f  the w ritten  e x a m :

Passed 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971

B lacks.........................  247 394 287 335 580
Whites............................. 566 817 808 1060 1244

F ailed

B lack s............................. 244 530 511 514 522
W hites............................. 117 255 226 244 233

Percent F ailed

B lack s.........................  49.6% 57.4% 64.0% 60.5%  47.4%
Whites.........................  17.1% 23.8% 21.9% 18.7% 15.8%

A d d itional evidence w hich d em on stra tes th e  D e p a r tm e n t’s 
co n tin u in g  d iscrim in ation  again st b lack s from  1 9 6 8 -1 9 7 1  is a 
S ta f f  R e p o rt by  the M ich ig a n  C iv il R ig h ts  C o m m iss io n . T h e  
C o m m issio n  sta ff review ed ap p lication s for p a tro lm a n  from  
Ja n u a r y  1, 1 9 6 9 , throu gh  M a rc h  3 1 , 1 9 7 0 , and  con clu d ed  
th a t there was p ro bab le  cause to believe th at the D e p a rtm e n t 

follow ed and  con tin u es to follow  a cou rse o f  ac tio n  in  its p e r­
sonnel p ractices lead in g  to the u n w arran ted  an d  d isp rop o r­
tio n ate  exclu sion  o f  larg e n u m b ers o f  n on -w h ite  person s from  
its em p lo y . ’ ’ E x h . 234-A at 2 1 . T h e  C o m m issio n  sta ff’s 
sp e c ific  fin d in g s o f  d is c r im in a to ry  p ra c tic e s  p a ra lle l the 
testim on y  o f  C o m m a n d e r F e rre b e e  and L ie u te n a n t B ro a d n a x



117a

and a re  in  a cco rd  w ith  th is  c o u r t ’ s fin d in g s. T h e y  are  
rep rod uced  in  the m a rg in  for the co n v en ien ce  o f  the re a d e r .23

23 The claimants, black males, allege denial of employment opportunity 
[by the respondent Detroit Poice Department] because of their race.

Review of records relative to persons applying for employment with 
respondent in the period January 1, 1969 through March 31, 1970 
discloses probable cause:

(1) to credit the claimant’s allegations
(2) to believe that respondent has followed and continues to follow a 
course of action in its personnel practices leading to unwarranted and 
disproportionate exclusion of large numbers of non-white persons 
from its employ.

Practices so identifiable are as follows:

(A) Employment of a pre-employment criterion (draft classification, 
other than 1-Y) which eliminates disproportionate numbers of black 
applicants and for the job-relatedness of which respondent has no 
evidence.

(B) Apparent discriminatory application of that criterion to the benefit 
of white applicants.

(C) Employment of a pre-employment criterion (arrest and/or traffic 
record) which eliminates disproportionate numbers of black applicants 
and for the job-relatedness of which respondent has no evidence. (Cf. 
Section III-C , Statements #2(b), 16, 17, 18, 19, 20).

(D) Employment of a pre-employment test which eliminates dispro­
portionate numbers of black applicants and for the job-relatedness of 
which respondent has no evidence.

(E) Employment of a pre-employment criterion (non-hypertensive- 
ness) which eliminated disproportionate numbers of black applicants 
(C f.: Section III-C , Statements, #5,9) and for the job-relatedness of 
which evidence is in dispute.

(F) Employment of a pre-employment test (allegedly a “ psychological 
questionnaire” ) which results in the elimination of disproportionate 
numbers of black applicants and for the job-relatedness of which 
respondent has no evidence.

(footnotes continued on next page)



118a

(b )  1 9 7 1 -1 9 7 4  Em ploym ent Practices

S ta rtin g  in  19 7 1 , w ith the ap p o in tm en t o f  C o m m a n d e r  F er- 
reb ee  to  h ead  the recru itin g  d iv ision , m atters did im p rove. 
C o m m a n d e r F erreb e e  in creased  the n u m b e r o f  b la ck  p erso n ­
nel in the R e c ru itin g  D iv isio n 24 and en g ag ed  in  p riority  
recru itm en t efforts to en cou rag e qu alified  b lack s to apply for a 
p osition  as police o fficer. T h e  M a y o r ’s 19 6 8  S p ecia l T a s k  
F o rce  had  recognized  the need for special re cru itm e n t efforts

( footnotes continued from  previous page)

(G) Employment of a pre-employment criterion (favorable U .S. 
military record) which eliminates disproportionate numbers of black 
applicants and for the job-relatedness of which respondent has no 
evidence.

(H) Apparent discriminatory application of that criterion to the 
benefit of white applicants.

(I) Employment of a condition of continuing (non-hypertensiveness) 
which eliminates disproportionate numbers of black employees and for 
job-relatedness of which evidence is in dispute. (Cf.: Section III-C , 
Statement #10).

( J )  Apparent discriminatory application of that criterion to the benefit 
of white employees.

(K) Employment of a hiring procedure which allows respondent’s 
employees to use wide personal discretion in the treatment accorded 
applicants.

(L) Employment of separate job classification, subject to substantially 
different requirements and conditions, for males and females; and for 
the maintenance of which respondent has no bona-fide job-related 
reason.

(M) Employment of a work force composed of approximately 11 % 
black employees within a municipal corporation; the black population 
of which is approximately 44% with subsequent substantial impact on 
the rights of that population to equal law enforcement.

In 1971, all 5 Recruiting Division supervisors and 13 out of 19 in­
vestigators were white.



119a

directed to the b la ck  co m m u n ity  b ecau se  o f  the D e p a rtm e n t’s 
abysm al rep u ta tio n  w ith  b la ck s. H o w ev er, from  19 6 8  u n til 
1971, acco rd in g  to S g t. B ro a d n a x , the D e p a rtm e n t’s m in o rity  
recru itin g  p ro g ra m  con sisted  essen tia lly  o f  one b la ck  lieu te ­
n a n t w ho a c te d  a s  p u b lic  r e la t io n s  m a n . T h e  re c o r d  
dem onstrates th a t the d ep artm en t did m ak e som e efforts in 
those y ears , bu t th at th ey  w ere n e ith er ex ten siv e  n o r su c­
cessful. S ta r tin g  in  1 9 7 1 , the D e p a rtm e n t did b eg in  to  a g ­
gressively recru it m in o ritie s , how ever. D e p a rtm e n t ap p lica ­
tions d ata  show s the effects o f  re cru itin g  an d  how  m assive 
m inority  a p p lica tio n  did n ot tak e p lace u n til 1 9 7 4 .25

U n d er C o m m a n d e r  F e rr e b e e ’s d ire c tio n , the D e p a rtm e n t 
sought m in o rity  ap p lican ts th ro u g h o u t the sta te , especially  
those at C o lleg es an d  U n iv e rs itie s . T h e  D e p a rtm e n t c o n ­
ducted w hat the E E O P  R e p o rt  (ex h . 2 6 a ) term ed  “ p erhap s 
the m ost ex ten siv e  ad v ertisin g  ca m p a ig n  designed to  a ttra ct 
m inorities th at h as b een  carrie d  on  anyw h ere in  the cou n try .

White Black
Year Applicants Applicants

1 9 6 8 . . . . 3,022 3,069
1 9 6 9 . . . . 2,336 2,086
1 9 7 0 . . . . 3,236 2,516
1 9 7 1 . . . . 4,482 3,625
1972. . . . 2,935 3,314
1973___ 3,001 3,535
1 9 7 4 . . . . 36% 64%
1 9 7 5 . . . . 1,261 5,314
1 9 7 6 . . . . 23% 77%
1977 . . .  . 35% 65%

Plaintiffs have attached the validity of the Department’s applicant flow 
data contained in exhibit 12 (b) from which the above table is derived. See 
discussion at n. 59, in fra. However, they approvingly cited the above 
table in their brief.



120a

T h e  tech n iq u es em p loyed  are d escribed  in  the E E O P , e x ­
cerp ts are rep rod u ced  in  the m a r g in .26

26 “ The Department utilizes two Dodge vans that are contributed an­
nually by the Chrysler Corporation for the purposes of recruiting in­
dividuals. These vans are taken into populated areas and applications are 
accepted from interested men and women. Besides being used in the 
downtown areas, the vans are often used to recruit at factories, state 
employment offices and other places where qualified candidates are likely 
to be found.

The Department has initiated several new themes in minority recruit­
ment. The “ Being a Cop is More than Just a Gig” , campaign was pro­
fessionally designed program implemented by advertising consultants.

This long term project was aimed at convincing black men and women 
that the police service provides an excellent opportunity to make mean­
ingful contributions to the community. Approximately $80,000 was ex­
pended on this campaign during a two-year period. An extensive 
recruiting campaign has also been conducted through local mass media. 
The Department has advertised in daily papers as well as on radio and 
television programs. Particular emphasis has been directed toward 
minority newspapers. During 1971 through 1973, a weekly radio pro­
gram on W JLB, a local station with a large black audience, was begun 
where radio listeners were able to call in and ask questions of department 
officials. Many prospective applicants took advantage of the program to 
have questions answered regarding recruitment procedures. Radio 
advertising campaigns specifically aimed at black audiences were also 
launched on other black radio stations. Department officials have also ap­
peared on numerous television programs to explain recruitment pro­
cedures at every available opportunity.

The Department utilized advertising in the community in other ways 
in addition to those mentioned above. Recruiting posters depicting 
minority officers are displayed prominently in the Recruiting and 
Department offices. Many owners of business places have allowed the 
Department to place posters aimed at minority recruitment in store­
fronts. (Significantly, these posters show the officer in “ helping” rather 
than “ enforcement” situations). We have also had an extensive bumper 
sticker campaign that helped get the “ more than just a gig” message out

(  footnotes continued on next page)



121a

C o m m a n d e r F e rre b e e  also in stitu ted  efforts to  m in im ize  
the ad verse im p act o f  the h irin g  p rocess on  b lack s. A ccess to 
the p re lim in ary  ap p lica tio n  card  file w as restric ted  to  D e p a rt­
m ent p erso n n el w ho p re lim in arily  in terv iew ed  ap p lican ts. N o 
longer cou ld  an y on e rem ov e card s from  the files w ithou t sig n ­
ing for th e m . In  ad d itio n , w ritten  gu id elin es w ere issued to 
D e p artm en t in terv iew ers reg ard in g  the p re lim in ary  in terv iew  
procedures.

Im p ro v em en ts w ere also m ad e in  B a ck g ro u n d  In v e stig a ­
tion p ro ced u res. In v estig a to rs  w ere forb id d en  to  accep t the 
w ithdraw al o f  an y  can d id ate  w ithou t ap p roval from  a su p er­
visor. In  1 9 7 2 , each  in v estig ato r b eg a n  to receiv e  equ al 
n u m b ers o f  b lack  and  w hite can d id ates to in v estig ate . T o  fu r­
ther in crease  a cco u n ta b ility , in  1 9 7 4  in v estig ato rs b eg a n  to 
work in  te a m s. In  1 9 7 4 , the E E O P  R e p o rt show ed th at rates 
o f d isqu alifica tion  on  the b asis o f  b ack g ro u n d  in v estig ation s 
for m in o rities  and  w hites w ere ab o u t eq u al.

S im ila r  im p ro v em en ts w ere m ad e in  the O ra l B o a rd  p ro ­
cedure . In  1 9 7 3 , the D e p a rtm e n t a rran g ed  th a t all ap p lican ts 
be asked sim ilar q u estion s b y  O ra l B o a rd s . E v ery  O ra l B o a rd

(footnotes continued from  previous page)

to the public. One of our most recent attempts in this area has been the 
advertising on benches used by the public in bus stops. Many of these 
benches are painted with the slogan, “ Detroit Needs More Good Cops.” 
Public busses are also used as an advertising medium.

The Department has recognized the fact that in some departments, 
reliance upon word-of-mouth recruitment has helped to perpetuate 
employment systems which have excluded minorities. To prevent this oc­
currence in Detroit, a referral program has been primarily directed 
toward minority officers who may be more aware of qualified minority 
persons in the community interested in a police career. Currently, one of­
ficer is assigned to coordinate referrals and the success of bringing in 
black applicants has been noteworthy.”



122a

cam e to  co n ta in  at least on e m in o rity  m e m b e r .27 In  ad d itio n , 
an  appeal process was set u p . T o  fu rth er p ro tect again st 
ab u se , the D e p artm e n t in stitu ted  a follow up p ro ced u re to find 
ou t w hy b lack  ap p lican ts w ho w ithdrew  early  from  the h irin g  
p rocess did so and to en co u rag e th em  to re tu rn .

T h e  w ritten  ex a m in a tio n , h ow ev er, co n tin u e d  to  b e  p ro b le ­
m a tic . In  19 7 1 , the D e p artm e n t used the W o n d e rlic  exam  
in  co m b in atio n  w ith  the O tis  and  also in trod u ced  the S R A  
P ic to ria l R e a so n in g  T e s t . F ro m  1971 u n til la te  1 9 7 3 , the 
D e p a rtm e n t w ent to  an o th er series o f  I .Q .  T e s ts  id entified  as 
valid  for C h icag o  p atro lm en . T h is  so -called  “ C h ica g o  B a t­
te ry ”  also had  a severe im p act on  b lack  a p p lican ts, as 
d em on stra ted  by  the follow ing statistics for 1 9 7 2 -1 9 7 3 .

1972 1973

Passed.
B lacks .............. 5 4 4 3 9 0
W h ite s . . . . . . 1 ,0 2 7 8 2 6

F ailed
B lacks .............. 493 302
W h ite s .............. 179 205

Percent F a iled
B lacks .............. 4 7 .5 % 4 3 .6 %
W h ite s .............. 1 5 .0 % 1 9 .9 %

It was not u ntil la te  19 7 3 , w ith the in stitu tion  o f  the 
D e tro it B a tte ry ”  w ritten  ex a m in a tio n , th at pass rates on  the 

w ritten  exam  w ere equ al for b lacks and  w hites.

P la in tiffs argu e that the D e p a rtm e n t’s en erg e tic  1 9 6 8 -1 9 7 4  
efforts to attract b lacks and to m ak e the D e p a rtm e n t’s h iring

The record is unclear on when this took place. Although defendants 
state that it was in 1974, plaintiffs properly point out in their reply brief 
that the date is not given in the Department Report which noted that this 
change had been made.



123a

procedures n o n -d iscrim in a to ry  d em o n stra tes th a t no a ffir ­
m ative actio n  p ro g ram  w as n eed ed  for p ro m o tion s. T h is  
claim  will b e  an alyzed  la te r  in  this o p in io n . H o w ev er, it is very  
clear th a t C o m m a n d e r F e rre b e e  and L ie u te n a n t B ro a d n a x  
were co rre ct w hen they  con clu d ed  th a t it w as not u ntil 
1 9 7 3 -1 9 7 4  th a t the D e tro it  P o lice  D e p a rtm e n t stopped its 
d iscrim in atory  h irin g  p ractices .

B. P rom otional Practices
T h e  D e p a rtm e n t’s p ro m o tio n a l p ractices h ave v aried  over 

the y ears. P ro m o tio n a l req u irem e n ts  are  co m p lex ; they  co n ­
sist o f  1) stan d ard s for d eterm in in g  w ho m ay  com p ete  for p ro ­
m otions (elig ib ility  stan d ard s); 2 ) stand ard s for d eterm in in g  
who will b e  p ro m o ted  (elig ib ility  for p ro m o tio n ); and  3) s ta n ­
dards for d e term in in g  the ord er in  w hich  those w ho com p ete  
will b e  p ro m o ted  (p ro m o tio n a l m od el w eights and th e ir a p ­
p lic a tio n ) . C o m p lic a t in g  a n y  a n a ly s is  is th a t  th e se  r e ­
qu irem ents h ave sh ifted  in re lative  w eights from  y ea r  to y ear 
and th at for som e p eriod s, th e  D e p a rtm e n t h ad  tw o c lassifica ­
tions for the lieu ten an ts ran k  w ith  sep arate  lin es o f  p rogression  
leading to each  classifica tion .

1. The R a c ia l M ake-u p  o f  the D epartm ent’s Supervisory R an ks
1 9 6 7 -1 9 7 4

In  19 6 7 , b lack s rep resen ted  2 .1 %  o f  the D e p a rtm e n t’s 
supervisory w ork force . 9 ( 2 .6 % )  o f  the 3 4 8  Se rg ean ts  and  2 
(1 .3 % )  o f  the 158 L ie u te n a n ts  w ere b la ck . T h e  ra tio  o f  b lack  
sergeants to b lack  police o fficers w as 1 :2 5 . T h e  ra tio  for w hites 
was 1 :1 2 . T h e  ra tio  o f  b lack  lieu ten an ts  to  b la ck  police officers 
was 1 :1 1 4 . F o r  w hites the ra tio  w as 1 :2 6 .

B y  J u n e  o f  1 9 7 4 , these n u m b ers  had  m u ltip lied ; th ere  w ere 
61 b lack  sergean ts an d  11 b la ck  lieu ten a n ts . H o w ev er, w hen 
expressed as a p ercen tag e  o f  the overall p oo l, the n u m b ers  
were still m in u scu le . T h e  reason  is th a t the n u m b e r o f  w hite



124a

serg ean ts and  lieu ten an ts h ad  m u sh ro o m ed . T h e  n u m b e r  o f 
w hite sergean ts in creased  from  3 3 9  in  1967  to  1 ,1 2 4  in  19 7 4 . 
T h e  n u m b er o f  w hite L ie u te n a n ts  in creased  from  156 in  1967 
to  2 1 9  in  19 7 4 . T h u s , despite th e  sig n ifican t n u m e rica l in ­
cre a se , the D e p artm e n t in  19 7 4  w as 5 .1 %  b lack  at the 
se rg e a n t’s level and 4 .8 %  b lack  at the lie u te n a n t’s level.

T h e  sign ifican t in crease  in the n u m b e r o f  su p erv isory  o f­
ficers w as n o t p aralleled  b y  a  co rre sp o n d in g  in crea se  in  the 
n u m b ers  o f  p atro lm en  and p a tro lw o m e n .28 B etw een  1967  and 
1 9 7 4 , the in crease  in  the ir n u m b ers w as m o d era te  —  from  
3 7 5 7  to 4 0 0 6 . T h e  D e p a rtm e n t thu s b e ca m e to p -h eav y  with 
su p erv isory  officers. T h e  overall ra tio  o f  serg ean ts to police o f­
fice rs  w as red u ced  from  1 :1 0 .8  to 1 :3 .4 .  T h e  ra tio  o f  
lieu ten an ts  to police officers w as red u ced  from  1 :2 3 .8  to 
1 :1 7 .4 .  W h ite  officers b en efited  greatly  from  the n u m e rica l in ­
crease  in  the su pervisory  ran k s. T h e  ra tio  o f  w hite serg ean ts to 
w hite police officers w as red u ced  from  1 :1 0 .4  to 1 :2 .8 .  T h e  
ra tio  o f  b lack  seargean ts to  b la ck  police o fficers w as reduced 
from  1 :2 4  to 1 :1 4 .3 . S im ila rly , the ra tio  o f  w hite lieu ten a n ts  to 
w hite officers was redu ced  from  1 :2 2 .7  to  1 :1 4 .3 .  T h e  ra tio  of 
b la ck  lieu ten an ts to b lack  o fficers w as red u ced  from  1 :1 0 7 .5  to 
1 :7 9 .3 .

U n d o u b ted ly , on e reason  for the d isp arity  in  the ra tio  m 
b la ck  lieu ten an ts to b lack  officers w as d iscrim in atio n  against 
b lack s in  h irin g . T h e  D e tro it P o lice  D e p a rtm e n t, like m ost 
p olice  d ep artm en ts, on ly  p ro m o ted  from  w ith in . In  other 
w ords, on ly  p atro lm en  w ho h ad  served in the D ep artm en t 
w ere consid ered  for p ro m o tio n  to th e  ran k  o f  serg ean t and 
on ly  sergeants in the D e p a rtm e n t w ere con sid ered  for p ro m o ­
tio n  to the ran k  o f  lieu ten an t. N o ou tsid ers w ere b rou g h t in at

Sex-segregation of all ranks of the Department ended in December, 
1973, as a result ofa  suit filed against the Department. See Schaefer v. T an-  
nian, 394 F.Supp. 1128 (E.D .M ich. 1974). No issues of sex discrimina­
tion are present in this case.



125a

the su p erv isory  levels. D iscrim in a tio n  in  the h ir in g  o f  b lacks 
m eant th a t th e re  w ere few  b la ck  p a tro lm en . A n d  few b lack  
p a tro lm en  m e a n t th a t  th e re  w ere  few  b la ck  ca n d id a te s  
available to  b eco m e serg ean ts and  lieu ten an ts . D e fe n d a n ts , 
how ever, a llege th a t in  ad d itio n , the p ro m o tio n a l p rocess w as 
itself d iscrim in ato ry  and  thu s op erated  to  fu rth er red u ce the 
n u m ber o f  b lack s w ho “ m ad e i t ”  to the se rg e a n t’s and lieu ­
te n a n t’s ran k s. T h e y  also c la im  th a t the ex a m in a tio n  w as not 
jo b -re la te d . I t  is these issues w hich  the fo llow ing sectio n s o f  
this c o u r t ’s o p in io n  address.

2. Prom otional L in es  o f  Progression

U n til 1 9 6 4 , th e re  w ere  tw o l ie u te n a n t ’s ra n k s , w ith  
se p a ra te  p r o m o tio n a l jo b  s e q u e n c e s  le a d in g  to  th e m . 
“ U n ifo rm ” serg ean ts and  “ u n ifo rm ”  lieu ten an ts  fu n ctio n ed  
on the p atro l side; th ey  gen erally  su pervised  p atro lm en  at the 
various p re cin cts . D e tectiv es , d etectiv e serg ean ts , and  d etec­
tive lieu ten an ts fu n ctio n ed  on  th e  in v estig ative  s id e .29 A ll 
sergeants and  lieu ten an ts  fu n ctio n ed  as su p erv iso rs.30

A d iag ram  o f  the p ro m o tio n a l sequ en ces involved  follow s:

Betw een 1965  an d  1967/68, the tw o sergean ts and  tw o lie u ­
ten an t’s ran k s w ere m erg ed . H o w ev er, by  the tim e o f  the 1969

29 There also existed a separate command structure for women which 
was not abandoned until December, 1973. As noted in n. 28, however, 
this litigation only concerns promotion of male police officers.

30 As this Court has previously noted, however, black supervisors were 
only allowed to supervise black officers until the early-to-mid 1960s.

P A T R O L  S I D E  
U n ifo rm  L ie u te n a n t 
U n ifo rm  S e rg ea n t

P atro lm an

I N V E S T I G A T I V E  S I D E  
D e t e c t i v e  L i e u t e n a n t  
D e tectiv e  S e rg ea n t 
D e tectiv e  
P a tro lm a n



126a

p ro m o tio n a l ex a m in a tio n , the p atro l side an d  in v estig ative 
side d istinctions w ere re -estab lish ed . A ll d istin ctio n s betw een  
p atro l side and investig ative side w ere abolish ed  in  19 7 0  w hen 
the tw o p ro m o tio n a l lines m erged  and  the ra n k  o f  detective 
w as elim in ated . F o llow in g  the m e rg e r , all d etectiv es w ere 
u p grad ed  to the ran k  o f  se rg e a n t.31 S in ce  1 9 7 0 , the jo b  se­
q u e n ce  has b een : P a tro lm a n  (now  called  police o fficer) —  
S e rg e a n t —  L ie u te n a n t.

P r io r  to the m erg e r, there existed  sep arate  elig ib ility  stan d ­
ard s for p ro m o tion  to u n iform  lieu ten a n t an d  d etectiv e  lieu ­
te n a n t. H ow ev er, the w ritten  e x a m in a tio n  w as essen tia lly  the 
sam e for all ranks.

3. The Prom otional Process

A s in d icated  supra, the p ro m o tio n al m odel con sists o f  1) c e r­
ta in  m in im u m  elig ib ility  req u irem e n ts  to sit for a  w ritten  e x ­
a m in a tio n , 2 ) several factors w hich  are  scored  and com b in ed  
on  the basis o f  a p red eterm in ed  form u la  to p ro d u ce a final 
com p o site  score, and  3) e lig ib ility  req u irem e n ts  to b e  p ro ­
m oted . E a ch  o f  the p ro m o tion al m o d e l’s co m p o n en ts have 
v aried  ov er the years. In  an y  ev en t, a fter  a  fin a l com p osite  
score  was ca lcu la ted , the D e p a rtm e n t crea ted  a  n u m erica l, 
ra n k -o rd ered  “ elig ib ility  re g is te r”  o f  all can d id ates eligible 
for p ro m o tio n . P ro m o tio n s to  the ran k  o f  serg ean t w ere m ade 
from  the reg ister o f  ran k ed , elig ib le p atro lm en . P ro m o tio n s to 
the ran k  o f  lieu ten an t w ere m ad e from  the reg ister o f  ran k ed , 
e lig ib le  sergeants. T h e  follow ing is a  synopsis o f  the re ­
q u irem en ts for p ro m o tion  an d  the m ean s by  w hich  p ro m o ­
tio n a l cand id ates w ere ran ked .

31 Although the former Detectives held the same rank and received the 
same salary as other sergeants, their investigative role continued. The 
former Uniform and Detective Sergeants continued to perform as super­
visors in the precincts and bureaus respectively; they were informally 
called “ executive detective sergeants.”



127a

(a) M in im um  E lig ibility  Requirem ents to Sit f o r  the Exam ination

T h e  first e lem en t o f  the p ro m o tio n a l p rocess estab lish ed  the 
criteria  w h ich  d efined  th a t class o f  o fficers w ho w ere en titled  to 
com pete fo r p ro m o tio n . T h is  first req u irem e n t is exp ressed  in  
term s o f  the m in im u m  n u m b e r  o f  y ears o f  service req u ired  to 
sit for the w ritten  e x a m in a tio n .

In  1 9 3 9 , can d id ates for the D e tectiv e  ex a m in a tio n  w ere r e ­
quired to h av e  a  m in im u m  o f  two (2 )  y ears o f  se rv ice .32

F ro m  1948  to  19 6 4  the m in im u m  w as five (5 )  y ears . In  1965  
it was red u ced  to  fou r (4 )  y ears and  in  1967  to th ree  (3 ) 
y ears.33 A t th e  ra n k  o f  D e tectiv e  S e rg ea n t tw o (2 )  y ears o f  ser­
vice in ra n k  o f  D e tectiv e  w as re q u ire d .34

In  1 9 3 9 , can d id ates co m p etin g  for the U n ifo rm  Se rg ean t 
exam in ation  w ere req u ired  to h ave fou r and o n e -h a lf (4 1 4 )  
years o f  serv ice. B e tw een  1948  and 1962 the m in im u m  w as 
seven (7 ) y ears o f  serv ice . In  1965  th e  m in im u m  w as red u ced  
to six (6 )  y ears , and  in 1969  to th ree  (3 )  y e a rs .35 S in ce  the 
m erger o f  the tw o se rg e a n t’ s ran k s follow ing the 19 6 9  e x ­
am in ation s, can d id ates for the new  S e rg e a n t ran k  are  re ­
quired to h av e  th ree  (3 )  y ears o f  serv ice. 36

32 Officers with more than eight years of service were not eligible to sit for 
the exam.

33 Beginning in 1969 the minimum could be reduced to 2 Vi years if the 
candidate had completed two years of college. If  he possessed a college 
degree, the minimum was 2 years.

34 In 1969 the in-grade minimum could be reduced to one year if the can­
didate had completed two years of college.

35 See n. 33, supra.

36 See n. 33, supra.



128a

In  v irtu ally  all y ears since 1 9 3 9 , can d id ates for p ro m o tion  
to the ran k  o f D e tectiv e  L ie u te n a n t or U n ifo rm  L ie u te n a n t 
w ere req u ired  to have a m in im u m  o f  tw o y ears o f  serv ice in 
th e  r a n k  o f  D e te c t iv e  S e r g e a n t  o r  U n ifo r m  S e r g e a n t  
resp ectiv e ly .37

(b )  T he Components o f  the P rom otional M o d el  

T h e  facto rs and w eights used to p ro d u ce th e  com p o site  
score  h av e varied  su bstan tia lly  o v er th e  y ears . T h e  m a jo r  
e lem en ts38 o f  the m odel and  the re la tiv e  w eight assign ed  to 
ea ch  are  set forth  in  the m a rg in .39

37 Beginning in 1965 the in-grade requirement could be satisfied in 
either the Detective Sergeant or Uniform rank and the in-grade 
minimum could be reduced to 1 Vi years if the candidate had completed 
two years of college.

38 Credit was also given for military service. In addition, beginning in 
1969 up to two percentage points were awarded for college education.
39

D E T EC T IV E

Exam
Written

Exam
Service
Rating

Oral
Interview Seniority

1939a. ......... 50 12 8 6
1940 ........... 50 15 15 6
1942 ........... 60 20 20 6
1947 ........... 60 20 20 10
1948 ........... 50 35 15b 9
1950 ........... 45 35 20 9
1955 ........... 50 30 20 9
1960 ........... 50 40 — 10
1964 ........... 55 30 — 15
1965 ........... 50 35 — 15
1967 ........... 55 35 — 10
1969 ........... 60 30 — 10

( footnotes continued on next page)



129a

(footnotes continuedfrom previous page)

D E T E C T IV E  AND U N IFO R M
SERG EA N T0

Exam
Written

Exam
Service
Rating

Oral
Interview Seniority

1939-40 ......... 50 15 15 6
1943 ................ 60 20 20 6
1945-47 ......... 60 20 20 10
1948 ................ 50 35 15d 10
1950 ................ 45 35 20 9
1955 ................ 50 30 20 9
1957-60 ......... 50 40 — 10
1962-64 ......... 55 30 — 15
1969 ................ 55 30 — 10
1970-73 ......... 60 30 — 8

D E T E C T IV E  AND U N IFO R M  
LIEU TEN A N T

Exam
Written

Exam
Service
Rating6

Oral
Interview

Prom.Rtng. Senior:

1940 ................ 50 15 15 6
1943 ................ 55 20 25 6
1945-47 ......... 55 20 25 10
1948 ................ 50 35 15g 10
1950 ................ 45 35 20 9
1955 ................ 45 30 25 9
1957-60 ......... 40 30 20 10
1962-65 ......... 45 20 20 15
1967 ................ 45 20 25 10
1969 ................ 50 20 20 10
1970-73 ......... 50 20 20 8

a In 1939 and 1940 up to 20 percentage points were awarded for “ train­
ing and experience.”

b In 1948 a “ qualification and merit review test” was substituted for the 
oral interview.

c In 1939 the weights applicable to these ranks were not identical. 

d & n .  b, supra.

( footnotes continued on next page)



130a

(1 )  Service Ratings

S erv ice  R a tin g s  are the p erfo rm a n ce  ev a lu a tio n s th a t are 
p rep ared  sem i-an n u ally  by  su p erv isory  o fficers. T h e y  co n ta in  
th e  su p erv isors’ w ritten  ap p raisa l o f  the su b o rd in a te  ’ s jo b  p e r­
fo rm a n ce  d u rin g  the p reced in g  six m o n th s.

S in ce  1962  service ra tin g s h ave b een  assigned  a v alu e o f 
2 0 %  o f  the o ffice r ’s score on  the L ie u te n a n t’s p ro m o tio n a l 
m o d e l. U n til 1967 an  av erag e o f  the last fou r service ra tin g s 
w ere used to derive the score that w as applied  to the m od el. 
T h e re a fte r , an  av erage o f  the last two was used.

(2 )  Prom otional R atings

B etw een  1969  and  19 7 3 , p ro m o tio n a l ra tin g s a cco u n ted  for 
tw en ty  p ercen t o f  the com p osite  score on  the lie u te n a n ts ’ , bu t 
n o t the se rg ea n ts’ , p ro m o tion al m od el. L ie u te n a n ts ’ p ro m o ­
tio n a l ra tin g s w ere given by su p erior o fficers w ith in  the 
D e p a rtm e n t and  they  tend ed  to m irro r  service ra tin g s. T h e y  
w ere elim in ated  from  the p ro m o tion al m od el in 1974  becau se 
it w as d eterm in ed  th at these ra tin g s did n ot co n trib u te  to  an 
ev a lu a tio n  of an  o ffice r ’ s p oten tia l for success as a lieu ten an t.

(3 )  Seniority

In  1 9 6 5 , seniority  accou n ted  for 15 p ercen t o f  the fin al c o m ­
posite score on  b oth  the sergean t and lieu ten an t p ro m o tion al

( footnotes continuedfrom previous page)

Before 1969, the service rating component was determined by taking an 
average of the candidate’s last four service ratings. Beginning in 1969 
the average of the last two service ratings was used.

An oral intereview” was conducted by Department supervisory was 
used until 1957 when it was replaced by a “ promotional rating.”

g See n. b, supra.



131a

m odels. 40 In  1967  it w as red u ced  to the 19 6 0  level o f  10 p e r­
c e n t.41 T h e  D e p a rtm e n t d eterm in ed  th at a fter  5 o r  6 y ears o f  
service, ad d itio n al tim e on  the jo b  did n ot co n trib u te  m a te r i­
ally to im p rov ed  jo b  p erfo rm a n ce  and th a t the sen iority  c o m ­
p onent o f  the m od el had an  adverse im p act on the p ro m o ­
tional o p p o rtu n ities  o f  m in o rities . F o r  these reaso n s, in 1970  
the w eight accord ed  the sen iority  fa c to r w as red u ced  to  eight 

p erce n t.42

(4 ) The Written Prom otional Exam ination

T h e  w ritten  p ro m o tio n a l e x a m in a tio n  is the single m ost im ­
p ortan t co m p o n e n t o f  the p ro m o tio n a l m od el. It  h as b een  the 
su b ject o f  ex ten siv e  a rg u m en t and  co m m en ta ry  in  th is litig a ­
tion . T h is  C o u rt w ill fully discuss the cla im s w hich  have b een  
m ade by  each  side co n cern in g  the w ritten  e x a m in a tio n  la te r  in 

this op in io n .

(5 ) Veterans Preference an d  College Credits

T h e  C ity  C h a rte r  m an d ated  a v e te ra n s ’ p re fe ren ce . A  p ro ­
m otional c a n d id a te ’s com p o site  score w as in creased  b y  14 a 
p ercentage p oin t for each  y ear o f  w artim e m ilita ry  service up 
to a m a x im u m  o f  2 p erce n tag e  p o in ts . In  o rd er to  en co u rag e  
police o fficers to  o b ta in  a co llege ed u catio n , a p ro m o tion al 
can d id ate ’s com p o site  score w as in creased  by  on e h a lf  o f  a

40 In 1940 seniority was weighted at only 6 percent of the promotional 
models for both ranks. Its weight was raised to 10 percent in 1942 and re­
mained at approximately that level until 1962.

41 In 1967 and 1969, seniority points could be accumulated at the rate of 
one-half a percent for each year of service.

42 The Department also changed the way seniority was computed to Vi of 
one percent per year for the first through the 10 th year of service, lk  of one 
percent per year for the 11th through 20th year of service and Vs of one 
percent for the 21st through the 24th year of service. This method of 
calculation slightly favored officers with long tenure in the department.



132a

p erce n tag e  p oin t for each  y ea r  o f  college up to  a  m a x im u m  o f 
tw o p oin ts. T h is  college cred it b o n u s w as first added  in  19 6 9 .

(c) A ddition al E lig ibility  Requirem ents f o r  Prom otion

In  1 9 7 3 , the D e p a rtm e n t b eg a n  to im p o se ed u catio n a l re ­
q u irem en ts  to be e lig ib le  for p ro m o tio n . In  1 9 7 3 , 10 sem ester 
h ou rs o f  college cred it w ere req u ired . T h is  m in im u m  was 
ra ised  in  su cceed in g  y ears , bu t a g ra n d fa th e r c lau se  exem p ted  
officers w ho h ad  12 lA  y ears o f  serv ice w ith  the D e p a rtm e n t as 
o f  D e ce m b e r  3 1 , 19 7 3 .

(d )  T he M echanics o f  the Prom otional System

T h e  p ro ce ss  le a d in g  to  th e  p u b lic a t io n  o f  th e  19 7 3  
se rg e a n ts ’ and  lie u te n a n ts ’ e lig ib ility  reg ister43 illu strates how 
the system  w ork ed .44 T h e  n otice  o f  ex am in atio n  was published 
on  N o v em b er 1, 19 7 3 . I t  an n o u n ced  the tim e and  p lace  o f  the 
ex a m in a tio n , the factors and  w eights to b e  applied  to create  
the e lig ib ility  reg ister, the duties en com p assed  by  the jo b ,  and 
the know ledge, skills and ab ilities  an  in cu m b en t w as exp ected  
to  possess. P r io r  to the d ate o f  the e x a m in a tio n , the D e p a rt­
m en t con d u cted  a  p ro m o tion al class w hich  all o fficers w ere en ­
co u rag ed  to a tte n d .45 C an d id ate s  w ish in g  to  c la im  v e te ra n s’ 
p re fe ren ce  p oin ts or college cred it p o in ts46 w ere req u ired  to

43 The first set of affirmative action promotions under challenge in this 
litigation were made from this register.

44 As is discussed below, the model was substantially changed in 1974. 
However, the 1973 model is representative of how promotional pro­
cedure worked pre-1974.

45 Almost every candidate attended these classes.

46 In that year (1973), the Department began phasing in college educa­
tion as an eligibility requirement to sit for the written examination. 
Officers with over 12 Vi years of service were exempted from the require­
ment. In addition to this, college credit would increase a promotional 
candidate’s composite score by one half of a percentage point for each 
year of college.



133a

subm it ap p ro p ria te  p ro o f by  a  certa in  d a te . T h e  w ritten  e x ­
am in ation  w as ad m in istered  on  D e ce m b e r  16 , 1973 an d , as in 
other y ears , w as g rad ed  an on y m ou sly .

S in ce  1972  can d id ates h av e been  p erm itted  to  ch a llen g e test 
item s they  b elieved  to b e  fau lty . I f  the item  is fou nd to b e  fau l­
ty , it is o m itted  for all can d id ates. In  ad d itio n  each  can d id ate  
is p erm itted  to review  his scored  e x a m in a tio n  and  m ay q u es­
tion  i t .47 A n  ad ju sted  w ritten  e x a m in a tio n  score o f  70  is 
assigned to  can d id ates w hose raw  score is a t the fifieth  p e rce n ­
tile o f  all o fficers sittin g  for the e x a m in a tio n . T h u s , can d id ates 
falling below  the fiftie th  p ercen tile  receiv ed  test scores below  
70 and w ere ran k ed  a long  w ith  those w ho scored  above 70 .

Serv ice  ra tin g s a re  ca lcu la ted  b y  tak in g  an  av erag e o f  the 
last two p erfo rm an ce  ev alu ation s (also called  service ra tin g s) 
received by  the can d id ate  p rio r to  sittin g  for the w ritten  e x ­
am in atio n . A s for can d id ates co m p etin g  for p ro m o tio n  to the 
rank o f  lie u te n a n t, sep arate  p ro m o tio n a l ra tin g s w ere also 
m ade b y  the ca n d id a te s ’ d irect su p erv isin g  officers. B o th  the 
service ra tin g s an d  p ro m o tio n a l ra tin g s w ere com p leted  prior 
to the tim e e x a m in a tio n  resu lts w ere av a ilab le .

T h e  ca n d id a te s ’ ad ju sted  w ritten  e x a m in a tio n  score , ser­
vice ra tin g s, p ro m o tio n a l ra tin g , sen iority  cred it, college 
credit and v eteran s p re feren ce  p oin ts w ere th en  w eighted  and  
com bin ed  on  the b asis  o f  the p re-assig n ed  valu es g iven  each  o f  
these com p o n en ts to p rod u ce a fin al com p o site  score. C a n ­
didates w ere th en  listed  on  an  “ E lig ib ility  R e g is te r ”  in  ran k  
order on  the b asis  o f  the fin al com p o site  score . T h e  assigned  
weights for the 1973  lie u te n a n t’s p ro m o tio n a l m odel w ere: 
w ritten test, 5 0 % ; service ra tin g s, 2 0 % ; p ro m o tio n a l ra tin g  
2 0 % ; sen io rity , 8 % ,  college an d  v eteran s p re fe ren ce , 2 %  
each.

47 Candidates were also allowed to question a score received on any other 
component of the promotional model.



134a

N o can d id ate  w as req u ired  to a tta in  an y  m in im u m  score  on 
an y  co m p o n en t p art o f  the p ro m o tio n a l m odel in o rd er to be 
p laced  on  the R e g is te r . R a th e r , the D e p a rtm e n t sim ply 
estim ated  the n u m b e r  o f  p ro m o tio n s it exp ected  to m ake 
d u rin g  the life o f  the R e g is te r  and  p laced  a su fficien t n u m b er 
o f  n am es on  the list to  satisfy  those n eed s. T h u s  for exam p le , 
the D e p a rtm e n t u ltim ately  p laced  the first 2 3 3  o f  the 5 1 8  c a n ­
d id ates th at sat for th e  1973  L ie u te n a n t’ s w ritten  e x a m in a tio n  
on  the E lig ib le  R e g is te r .

4. D iscrim ination within the Prom otional M odel

P rio r  to 1 9 7 3 , the D e p a rtm e n t did not m a in ta in  statistics by 
ra ce  o f  ap p lican ts for p ro m o tio n  to serg ean t or lieu ten an t. 
H o w ev er, as noted  e a rlie r  in  this o p in io n , the n u m b e r o f  b lack  
serg ean ts and  lieu ten an ts w as m in u scu le , even  w hen  co m ­
p ared  w ith the sm all n u m b e r o f  b lack  o fficers. In  1 9 6 7 , for 
ex a m p le , the D e p a rtm e n t w as a p p ro x im ate ly  6 %  b la ck , yet 
on ly  2 .5 %  o f  the sergean ts and  1 .3 %  o f  the lieu ten an ts  w ere 
b lack .

B e fo re  the D e p a rtm e n t w as ev en tu ally  in teg ra ted , d iscrim i­
n a to ry  jo b  assig n m en ts took  th e ir  toll as b lack s w ere gen erally  
exclu d ed  from  desirab le positions such as scou t ca r  and  cru iser 
a ssig n m en ts , su pervisory  fu n ctio n s and  desk clerk  assign ­
m en ts . E a ch  o f  these positions g en erated  h igh  service ratings 
and  w as eagerly  sought a fter by  u p w ard ly -m o bile  w hite 
o fficers.

B la ck  officers com p la in  th at th e ir  w hite su pervisors gave 
th em  d elib erately  low service ra tin g s, p ro m o tio n a l ra tin g s and 
o ra l in terv iew  scores. D e te rm in in g  the tru st o f  th is c la im  is d if­
ficu lt, a lthou gh  there is no qu estion  th at the b lack  officers 
th o u g h t it w as tru e . T h is  C o u rt has referred  above to  the 
d o cu m en ted  d iscrim in a to ry  effect o f  su b je c tiv e  decision s 
m ad e in the police h irin g  p rocess. G iv e n  the in ferior status o f 
b lack s w ith in  the D e p a rtm e n t u ntil at least the m id -1 9 6 0 s , it is



135a

reasonable to  in fer th a t sim ilar d iscrim in atio n  to o k  p lace in 
su b jective ev alu ation s w ith in  the d ep artm en t.

T h e  m ost d iscrim in ato ry  aspect o f  the p ro m o tio n a l m od el, 
how ever, w as clearly  the h eav ily  w eighted  w ritten  e x a m in a ­
tion. B e fo re  1 9 6 9 , the sam e w ritten  e x a m in a tio n  w as given  for 
prom otion  to  all ran k s b etw een  d etectiv e and  lieu ten a n t. 
Every p ro m o tio n a l ex a m in a tio n  up to th at tim e in clu d ed  as an 
essential co m p o n e n t a  stan d arized  I .Q .  test such  as the O tis , 
O tis -L e n n o n , the H in d e n -N e lso n , the C a lifo rn ia  S h o rt F o rm  
M atu rity  T e s t . In  ad d itio n , each  section  o f  the test w as rig id ly 

tim ed.

In  1 9 6 8 , C o m m a n d e r R ic h a rd  C a re tti w as assigned  to the 
personnel e x a m in e r ’s o ffice .48 H e  started  ou t b y  w ork in g  
closely w ith  the V ic k e ry  C o m m itte e , com p osed  of seven  in ­
dustrial p sy ch o log ists  and  p erso n n el o ffice rs , w h ich  w as 
studying the w ritten  e x a m in a tio n  used  at the h ir in g  level. 
M r. C a re tti ob serv ed  the ad m in istra tio n  o f  the 1 9 6 9  p ro m o ­
tion al e x a m in a t io n , b u t h a d  n o  p a rt in  d ev e lo p in g  its 
co n ten t.49 I t  fea tu red  rig id  tim e  lim ita tio n s an d , in  p lace o f  the 
I .Q . test, a  v erb a l in v en to ry  test an d  a R e a d in g  C o m p re h e n ­
sion test. B o th  tests p roved  u n sa tisfacto ry  for m an y  reason s 

and w ere n o t used a g a in .

T h e r e a f te r ,  C o m m a n d e r  C a r e t t i  a ssu m e d  in c re a s in g  
responsibility  for the p ro m o tio n a l ex a m s. H e  co n v in ced  his 
superiors to drop b o th  in te llig en ce  testin g  an d  rig id  tim e 
tolerances on  the 19 7 0  e x a m . H o w ev er, the D e p a rtm e n t did 
retain v ariou s g en eral v o ca b u la ry  an d  ap titu de tests w hich 
were ad m in istered  in  the 1 9 7 0  and  fu tu re  testin g s. In  19 7 2 , 
aptitude tests u sing  g en eral v o cab u lary  and  w ord an alog y  fo r­
m ats w ere ad m in iste red , a lth ou gh  th e ir  w eight w as red u ced .

48 He was then a lieutenant.

49 That examination was developed by a Pennsylvania State University 
psychologist.



136a

In  1973  the D e p a rtm e n t ab an d o n e d  these tests and adopted  a 
new  v o cab u lary  test w hich  w as also used on the 19 7 4  and  1976 
e x a m in a tio n s . In  b o th  1972  and  1 9 7 3 , the D e p a rtm e n t also 
used the W a tso n -G la se r  C rit ic a l T h in k in g  A p p raisa l w hich  is 
d esigned  to m easu re  g en era l in te llig en ce .

A s the D e p a rtm e n t d ow ngrad ed  ap titu d e and  I .Q .  testin g  
on  the p ro m o tion al ex am  startin g  in  1 9 7 0 , it exp an d ed  testin g  
in  the a reas o f  police a d m in istra tio n  and  su p erv ision  and 
p o lice-co m m u n ity  re la tio n s. T h e  tren d  is ap p aren t from  the 
follow ing tab le  o f  the ap p ro x im ate  w eights accord ed  the v e r­
bal ab ilities , in te llig en ce, and  g en era l know ledge an d  su p er­
v iso ry  p rin c ip le s ’ sections o f  the lie u te n a n ts ’ ex a m in a tio n :

Yr. of Lt. 
Examination

V erbal 
Abilities Intelligence

General
Knowledg*

19 6 6  . . . . . . . . .  20  % 3 3 .3 % 6 .7 %
1967  .............. . . .  2 6 .2 % 3 2 .8 % 6 .6 %
1 9 6 9  . . . . . . . . .  3 1 .6 % 1 5 .8 %
1970  ..............
1972  .............. . . .  1 1 .4 % 1 1 .4 % 4 5 .7 %
1973  .............. . . .  1 1 .1 % 1 1 .1 % 2 2 .2 %
1 9 7 4  .............. . . . 1 4 .8 % 3 3 .3 %
19 7 6  .............. . . .  1 2 .8 % 2 6 .3 %

A s C o m m a n d e r C a re tti n oted  at tr ia l, both  g en eral ap ­
titu d e tests and I .Q .  tests h ave lo n g  b een  recog n ized  as having 
an  adverse im p act on m in o ritie s .50 T h e re  w as no d ou bt in  his

50 See Griggs v. D u ke P ow er C o ., 401 U .S. 424, 430 n. 6, 91 S.Ct. 849, 28 
L.Ed.2d 158 ( 1 9 7 1 ) ;  J a m e s  v. S tockham  Valves &  F ittin g  C o ., 559 F.2d 310, 
335-38 (5th Cir. 1977), cert, denied, 434 U .S. 1034, 98 S.Ct. 767, 54 
L.Ed.2d 781 (1978).



137a

m ind th a t the p ro m o tio n a l e x a m  p rio r to 19 7 0  w as d iscrim in a ­
tory. N o r is th e re  an y  d ou bt th a t th e  ex am  w as not jo b -  
re la te d . In d e e d , th e  U n ifo r m  G u id e l in e s ,51 29  C . F . R .  
§ 1 6 0 7 .1 4 C (1 )  p ro h ib it th e  use o f  in te llig en ce or ap titu de tests 
in an y  selection  p ro ced u re w hich  cla im s to  b e  co n te n t jo b  
re la ted .52

III. DEFENDANTS’ PAST DISCRIMINATION 
MODEL — AN ANALYSIS

T h e  d efen d an ts, as p a rt o f  th e ir  show ing o f  p ast d iscrim in a ­
tion , in trod u ced  an  an alysis o f  the re lev an t la b o r m ark et to  be 
applied h ere  an d  p resen ted  a  co n co m ita n t estim ate  o f  the 
n u m b er o f  b lack s on e w ould exp ect to  b e  lieu ten a n ts  tod ay  
had the D e p a rtm e n t n ot d iscrim in ated  ag ain st b lack s for so 
m any y ears . A n y  a ttem p t to reco n stru ct the p ast is in ex act and 
open to  q u estio n . T h e  p lain tiffs h av e  lau n ch ed  a m assive 
attack on the analysis p resen ted . B eca u se  o f  the d ifficu lties in ­
volved, th is C o u rt w ill deal w ith  th is issue in this sep arate  sec­
tion o f  this o p in io n .

A. Relevant Labor Market
[1] A s th is C o u rt in d icated  in  its earlier  op in ion  g ran tin g  

d efen d an ts’ m o tio n  fo r p a rtia l su m m a ry  ju d g m e n t, 4 8 3

51 The Uniform Guidelines on Employee Selection procedures were 
adopted by the EEO C, the Civil Service Commission and the Depart­
ments of Labor and Justice on Agusut 25, 1978. 43 Fed.Reg. 38290 et 
seq., reprinted at 29 C .F .R . § 1607 et seq.

52 This prohibition is based on the recognition that there is no inherent 
correlation between test behavior and work behavior. For example, one 
can infer that doing well on a vocabulary test means that a person can also 
communicate well, but the uniform guidelines mandate stronger 
evidence than this to support the assumption.

In the case of intellience or aptitude testing, there is simply no evidence 
that persons who do well on these tests are better workers in any job than 
those who do not perform as well.



138a

F .S u p p . 9 1 9 , re lev ant la b o r m ark et an alysis is a d ifficu lt fa c ­
tu a l q u estion . P ro b a tiv e  ev id en ce o f  race  d iscrim in a tio n  exists 
i f  the n u m b er o f  b lack s h ired  or em p loyed  is d isp ro p o rtio n ate  
to th e  n u m b e r  o f  b lack s who apply or w ho are av a ilab le  in the 
lo cal jo b  m ark et. See H azelw ood  School District v. U nited States, 
4 3 3  U .S . 2 2 9 , 3 1 0 -1 3 , 97  S .C t .  2 7 3 6 , 53  L .E d .2 d  7 6 8  (1 9 7 7 ) ; 
In tern ’l Brotherhood o f  Team sters v. U nited States, 431 U .S .  3 2 4 , 
3 3 9 -4 0  n . 2 0 , 3 4 2  n . 2 3 , 97  S .C t .  1 8 4 3 , 52 L .E d .2 d  396  
(1 9 7 7 ) . T h e  re lev ant lab o r m a rk e t, o r “ la b o r p o o l”  is c o m ­
p osed  o f  the grou p  o f  q u a lified  p eo p le  fro m  w h om  an 
em p loy er draw s ap p lican ts. T h u s , in  the case o f  tea ch ers , the 
re lev an t la b o r m ark et m igh t b e  th e  n u m b e r  o f  qualified  
teach ers in  the m etro p o litan  a re a . See H azelw ood , supra.

T w o  d istinct elem en ts m ake up the re lev an t m a rk e t: q u a li­
fica tio n s and  geograp hic lo ca tio n . In  this case , the en try-level 
q u a lifica tio n s for police officers in  D e tro it from  1945  to the 
p resen t w ere not strict. T h e  p rin cip a l req u irem e n ts  w ere age 
( 2 1 - 3 0 , la te r  1 8 -3 2 )a n d  ed u cation  (h ig h  school lev e l). It  is true 
th a t o th er req u irem en ts existed  such as n o  cred it p ro b lem s, no 
p olice  reco rd , vision and h eig h t, e tc .,  b u t they  w ere m in o r in 
co m p ariso n . A b sen t d iscrim in atio n , it w ould be reaso n ab le  to 
exp ect that p ro p ortion ate  n u m b ers  o f  b lack  and  w hite m ales in 
D e tro it  betw een  the ages o f  21 and  30  w ho had  h igh  school 
d ip lom as w ould apply to the D e p a rtm e n t an d  th a t p ro p o r­
tio n ate  n u m b ers w ould be h ired .

T h e  re lev ant g eograp h ic a re a  from  w h ich  ap p lican ts would 
ord in arily  com e is the second  la b o r m ark et fa c to r. In  1 9 7 4 , the 
C ity  o f  D e tro it institu ted  a  resid en cy  re q u ire m e n t —  all C ity  
em p loyees w ere req u ired  to live in  the C ity . F ro m  1 9 7 4  to the 
p resen t, it is c lear that the re lev an t la b o r m ark et a re a  is the 
C ity  o f  D e tro it.

F o r  previous y ears, how ever, th e re  w as no resid en cy  re ­
q u irem en t. T h e  C ity  h ired  police o fficers from  su rrou n d in g  
su b u rb an  areas as w ell. F ro m  th is, p lain tiffs argu e th at the



139a

relevant la b o r m ark et is the D e tro it  S ta n d a rd  M e tro p o lita n  
Sta tistica l A re a  ( S M S A ) , com p osed  o f  W a y n e , O a k la n d  and  
M a co m b  co u n ties. In  co n tra st, th e  co m p ariso n  w hich  C h iefs  
T a n n ia n  an d  H a rt m ad e d u rin g  th e ir  p resen tatio n s to  the 
B oard  o f  P o lice  C o m m issio n ers  w as the ra c ia l com p o sitio n  o f  
the D e p a rtm e n t an d  th e  ra c ia l co m p o sitio n  o f  the C ity  o f  
D etro it. A s the exp ert testim o n y  at tr ia l show ed, the precise 
figure is som ew here in  b etw een  these tw o figu res. It  is tru e  
that som e ap p lican ts to  the D e p a rtm e n t cam e from  the su r­
rou n d in g  D e tro it  su b u rb s, b u t very  few rela tiv e  to  the n u m b er 
o f ap p lican ts w ho cam e from  the C ity  o f  D e tro it  itse lf .53 T h e  
expert w itness testified  th a t th is w as in acco rd  w ith g en eral 
labor m ark et th eo ry  th at a p erson  is m o re  likely  to apply for a 
jo b  the clo ser he/she lives to th at jo b .

B. D efend ants’ E x p e rt’s Analysis
[2] A p p ly in g  the above p rin cip les, the exp ert w itness, 

M r. A lan  F e c h te r , estim ated  th e  re lev an t m a rk et an d  its 
racial com p o sitio n  for each  o f  the y ears  1945  to 19 7 8 . T h e  
1950, 19 6 0  and  1970  cen su s provided  the n eed ed  d ata  as to the 
race and  q u a lifica tio n s o f  m em b ers  o f  th e  “ la b o r  p o o l.”  
M r. F e ch te r  n oted  th e  n u m b e r  o f  b lack  an d  w hite m ale  high 
school g rad u ates in  the re lev an t age ra n g e s .54 H e  th e n  ad ­
ju sted  these figu res b y  an  “ u n d erco u n t fa c to r”  to  a cco u n t for 
persons m issed  by  the cen su s. N ex t, he m u ltip lied  these

53 In 1973, a year the expert found was somewhat typical of long-range 
patterns, the distribution of applicants was:

Detroit City: 74.65%
Balance of Detroit SMSA: 20.48%
Balance of Michigan: 4.87 %

54 From 1950 to 1968, the Department’s age requirement was 21 to 30. 
In 1968, the age requirement was changed to 21 to 32 and still later to 18 
to 32. To approximate these figures, Mr. Fechter examined the 20 -2 9  
age range on the 1950 and 1960 census and the 18 -34  age range on the 
1970 census.



140a

figu res b y  th e  la b o r  force  p a rtic ip a tio n  ra te , w hich  is the 
p erce n tag e  o f  the p op u lation  actu ally  w ork in g  or lo ok in g  for 
w o rk . T h e s e  c a lc u la tio n s  a p p ro x im a te d  th e  n u m b e r  o f 
q u alified  p o ten tia l ap p lican ts in  the a re a  b y  ex clu d in g  the 
u n ed u cated , those too old o r y o u n g  and  those u n a b le  to  w ork.

A d d itio n al ad ju stm en ts need ed  to  be m ad e. T h e  m ost im ­
p o rta n t w as for g eo g rap h ic  lo ca tio n . S in ce  m a n y  m o re  p e r­
sons applied  to the D e p a rtm e n t from  the C ity  o f  D e tro it  than  
from  the su b u rb s, m u ch  g rea ter w eight w as g iven  to  the 
n u m b e r  o f  qu alified  ap p lican ts liv in g  in th e  C ity . S im ilarly , 
the figu res in  earlier  y ears h ad  to b e  ad ju sted  b ecau se  in  those 
y ea rs , a  g rea ter p erce n tag e  o f  people in  th e  S M S  A  lived  in  the 
C ity  o f  D e tro it . F in a lly , M r . F e c h te r  m ad e a fin a l ad ju stm en t 
o f  6 p ercen tag e  p oin ts b ecau se  b lack s h ad  a  h ig h er propensity  
to  apply to the D e p a rtm e n t th an  w h ite s .55

M r . F e ch te r  con d u cted  th is an alysis for each  o f  the y ears for 
w hich  censu s d ata  w as av ailab le  —  1 9 5 0 , 1 9 6 0 , 19 7 0 . H e  then 
used stra ig htlin e  in terp o la tio n  and  ex tra p o la tio n  to d eterm in e 
the b lack -w h ite  share o f  the re lev an t la b o r m ark et for all o ther 
y ears betw een  1945  an d  19 7 3 . O n e  w ould ex p e ct th a t the h ir ­
in g  o fb la c k s  for the years 1945  to 1973  w ould ap p ro x im ate  the 
p erce n tag e  o f  b lack s in the ab ov e-d efin ed  re lev an t m ark et for 
each  o f  the years in q u estio n . In  rea lity , for each  o f  the y ears in 
q u estion  excep t o n e , D e p a rtm e n t h ir in g  h ad  a statistically

This does not contradict testimony that the Department’s racial prac­
tices deterred blacks from applying to the Department. The evidence is 
clear that large numbers of blacks applied to the Department year in and 
year out. This is logical given discrimination against blacks in private in­
dustry. The conclusion is inescapable that even larger numbers would 
have applied absent discrimination.



141a

sign ifican t im p act ag a in st b lack s. T h e  follow ing ta b le  su m ­
m arizes M r . F e c h te r ’s ov erall fin d in gs:

Comparison, Racial Composition of Hires and Labor Pool, 1945-1973

Labor Pool

Year (% nonwhite) Total Hi

1945 . . 13.8 301
1946.. 14.4 304
1947 . . 15.1 577
1948. . 15.7 288
1949. . 16.3 414
1950. . 17.0 313
1951 . . 17.7 268
1952. . 18.3 328
1953 . . 18.9 189
1954. . 19.6 369
1955 . . 20.2 327
1956. . 20.9 187
1957. . 21.5 158
1958. . 22.2 14
1959. . 22.8 116
1960. . 23.5 90
1961.. 25.1 192
1962 . . 26.7 278
1963 . . 28.3 179
1964. . 29.9 141
1965 . . 31.5 171
1966. . 33.1 205
1967 . . 34.8 323
1968.. 46.1 519
1969.. 42.9 561
1970. . 39.5 495
1971. . 40.5 656
1972. . 47.9 613
1973 . . 43.0 491

Black Hires

DifferenceEstimated Actual

42 5 37*
44 7 37*
87 17 70*
45 9 36*
67 7 60*
'53 3 50*
47 28 19*
60 27 33*
36 10 26*
72 7 65*
66 11 55*
39 11 28*
34 9 25*

3 3 0
26 7 19*
21 3 18*
48 7 41*
74 10 64*
51 9 36*
42 6 36*
54 16 36*
68 38 30*

112 71 51*
239 180 59*
241 127 114*
196 101 85*
266 170 96*
257 185 72*
211 149 62*

* Statistically significant from zero at .05 level of probability.



142a

T h is  analysis show s th a t had  the D e p a rtm e n t h ired  b lacks 
in  p ro p ortion  to th e ir  rep resen ta tio n  in the re lev an t lab or 
m a rk e t, 1 ,3 6 6  m ore b lack s w ould h ave b e e n  h ired  th a n  a ctu a l­
ly  w ere h ired . T h is  fin d in g  fully co rro b o ra te s  th is C o u r t ’s 
p revious analysis o f  the h irin g  m od el em p loy ed  by  the C ity , 
w hich  featu red  su b jectiv e  o p in io n  and I .Q .  testin g  w hich  im ­
p a c te d  sh a rp ly  a g a in s t  m in o r i t ie s .  T h is  a n a ly s is  a lso  
d em on stra tes th at C h iefs T a n n ia n  and  H a r t  w ere n ot far 
w ron g  w hen in  th e ir ap p earan ces b efore  th e  B o a rd  o f  Police 
C o m m issio n ers  they  com p ared  the ra c ia l co m p o sitio n  o f  the 
D e p a rtm e n t w ith th at o f  the g en era l p op u lation  o f  th e  C ity . 
M r . F e c h te r ’s an aly sis  e s tim a te s  th a t th e  re le v a n t lab o r 
m a rk et w as 4 3 %  b la ck  in  1 9 7 3 . C h ie fs  T a n n ia n  and  H art 
cited  a  lab o r m ark et figu re o f  5 0 %  from  1 9 7 4  to 1 9 7 7 . A s this 
C o u r t noted  in  its ord er g ran tin g  d efen d a n ts’ m o tio n  for p ar­
tia l su m m ary  ju d g m e n t, 483  F . Su p p . 9 1 9 , co m p ariso n s b e ­
tw e e n  e m p lo y m e n t  s t a t is t ic s ,  a n d  g e n e r a l  p o p u la tio n  
sta tistics , a lthou gh  som etim es im p recise , ca n  b e  u sefu l in d ica ­
tion s o f  d iscr im in a tio n .56 T h a t  is ev id en t h e re , esp ecia lly  since 
M r . F e ch te r  testified  th at h is figures w ere u n d e rsta te d .57

M r . F e ch te r  th en  w ent fu rth er and  estim ated  th e  n u m b e r of 
b la c k  lieu ten a n ts  on e m ig h t h av e e x p e cte d , a ssu m in g  a 
d iscrim in atio n -free  h irin g  an d  p ro m o tio n al m od el. H e co n ­
d u cted  an  analysis for two y ears —  19 7 4  an d  1 9 7 8 . H e  took 
the actu al list o f  lieu ten an ts em p loyed  in ea ch  o f  these years 
an d  d eterm in ed  in  w hat y ea r  each  o f  th em  h ad  b een  originally  
h ired  as p atro lm en . T h e  p ercen tag e  o f  n on -w h ites in  the rele­
v an t la b o r m ark et for each  h irin g  y ea r  w as th en  m u ltip lied  by 
the n u m b er o f  (fu tu re) lieu ten an ts h ired  in each  o f  the years to

56 See A fro-A m erican  P atro lm an ’s  L eagu e  v. D u ck, 503 F.2d 284, 299 (6th 
Cir. 1974); U nited States v. City o f  B u ffa lo , 457 F. Supp. 612, 621 
(W .D .N . Y. 1978); L eagu e o f  U nited  L a tin  A m erican C itizen s v. City o f  Santa 
A n a, 410 F. Supp. 873, 896 -9 8  ( C .D . Cal. 1976).

57 See note 58, infra.



143a

arrive at the h y p o th etica l n u m b e r o f  n on -w h ite  o fficers who 
would h av e  m ad e it to  lieu ten a n t. M r . F e c h te r ’s analysis 
reveals th a t th e re  w ould h ave b e e n  43  b lack  m ale  lieu ten an ts 
in J u n e ,  1 9 7 4 . In  fact th ere  w ere 9 . F o r  1 9 7 8 , M r . F e c h te r ’s 
analysis rev eals th a t th e re  w ould  h av e b e e n  4 9  b la ck  m ale 
lieu ten an ts. B y  th e n , h ow ev er, the affirm ativ e  action  plan had 
been  in effect for several y ears . A s a  resu lt, th ere  w ere 41 b lack  
m ale lieu ten a n ts  in th e  D e p a rtm e n t in 19 7 8 .

P la in tiffs seize u pon  th is la tte r  fig u re  and  u rge th a t at 
m in im u m , it ju s tifie s  an  in ju n ctio n  ag ain st an y  fu rth er a ffir­
m ative actio n  p ro m o tio n s since M r . F e ch te r  testified  that the 
difference b etw een  49  an d  41 w as not sta tistica lly  sig n ifican t. 
T h is  ig n o re s  M r . F e c h t e r ’s te s tim o n y  th a t  h is  a n a ly sis  
u nderstates th e  n u m b e r  o f  b la ck  lieu ten a n ts  on e w ould exp ect 
to find in  a d iscrim in atio n  free  h irin g  and  p ro m o tio n a l en ­
v iro n m en t.58 T h is  also fails to tak e in to  accou n t the C ity ’s 
o p e r a t io n a l  n e e d  d e f e n s e , d is c u s s e d  b e lo w . F in a l ly ,  
M r. F e c h te r  testified  th a t it is cu rren tly  im p ossib le  to q u an tify  
the n u m b er o f  b lack s w ho should  b e  lieu ten an ts  in  fu tu re 
years.

A n y  an alysis like M r . F e c h te r ’s ca n  b e  a ttack ed  as in a c ­
cu rate on  a  v a rie ty  o f  g rou n d s. T h e r e  is sim ply  n o  w ay to

58 Mr. Fechter cited two reasons for this view. First, he assumed that 
equal numbers of black and white officers stayed on with the Depart­
ment. However, in the military, black retention rates are far higher than 
white retention rates, (i.e. 50.6%  versus 34.5%  in 1978). M r. Fechter 
stated that because military and police work is similar, he would expect 
retention rates to be similar as well.

Second, Mr. Fechter underestimated the propensity of blacks to apply 
to the Department. He adjusted the racial composition of the labor pool 
upward by 6% to account for the greater black propensity to apply. In 
reality, the figures are much higher. In 1967 and 1968, for example, 
there was a 15% difference in application rates. Out of caution, 
Mr. Fechter took an average of the low 1970-1973 application rate 
figures.



144a

reco n stru ct the p ast w ith  p in p oin t a ccu ra cy . T h e  p lain tiffs 
h ave lau n ch ed  a  w holesale assau lt on  M r . F e c h te r ’s analysis 
an d  fin d in gs. T h is  C o u rt d isag rees; it finds h is an aly sis to be 
cred ita b le  and  en tire ly  con sisten t w ith  th is C o u r t ’s previou s 
fin d in gs o f  d iscrim in atio n . In stead  o f  b u rd e n in g  these pages 
w ith  a d iscussion  o f  p la in tiffs ’ a ttack s on  the an aly sis , this 
C o u rt will d iscuss th em  in  a len g th y  foo tn ote  rep rod u ced  at 
the m a rg in .59

59 1. Plaintiffs claim that M r. Fechter’s analysis is flawed because it is 
based on data concerning applicants to the Department from 1971 to 
1973 which was inflated by special recruitment efforts directed to 
minorities. Mr. Fechter increased the percentage of blacks by 6 percen­
tage points to account for the increased propensity of blacks to apply. 
Plaintiffs contend that this adjustment is erroneous because in the years 
in which this propensity was determined — 1971 to 1973, large scale 
minority recruiting efforts were artificially increasing the number of 
black applicants. This Court cannot agree. First, this Court has previous­
ly found that minority recruiting efforts did not begin to take effect until 
1973-1974. Second, Mr. Fechter’s analysis of propensity to apply was 
not based on inflated figures. He examined q u a lified  applicants who were 
eligible to take the written examination in each year from 1967 to 1973. 
His 6% adjustment was conservative in light of the 15 percentage point 
difference in black vs. white propensity to apply which existed in 1967 
and 1968 — years in which even the plaintiffs concede no significant 
minority recruiting occurred.

It is true that M r. Fechter analyzed 1971 applicant data from the 
Department’s preliminary application flies and that this data also showed 
that blacks had a much higher propensity to apply. Had excessive minori­
ty recruiting occurred, this data could have been distorted. However, all 
that it was used for was to corroborate his basic premise that blacks had a 
much higher propensity to apply than whites.

As a final corollary argument, plaintiffs claim that Mr. Fechter’s 
analyses failed to account for voluntary withdrawals, in violation of 
EEOC guidelines. See “ Interpretation and Clarification of Uniform 
Employee Selection Guidelines.’ ’ f4175, C .C .H . Emp. Prac. (March 
1979). They argue that inclusion of voluntary withdrawals inflated

( footnotes continued on next page)



145a

( footnotes continued from  previous page)

Mr. Fechter’s analysis of black’s propensity to apply since more blacks 
than whites voluntarily withdrew from the hiring process. The EEOC 
standard reads as follows:

“ A person who voluntarily withdraws formally or informally at any 
stage of the selection process is no longer an applicant or candidate for 
purposes of computing adverse impact. Employment standards impos­
ed by the user which discourage disproportionately applicants of a 
race, sex or ethnic group may, however, require justification.”

There is testimony in the record that for a number of years, dispropor­
tionate members of blacks withdrew from the hiring process. It was in 
response to this problem that the Department instituted a follow-up pro­
gram to find out why black applicants had dropped out and to encourage 
them to go through the procedures. The reason why blacks became 
discouraged, however, was the Department’s discriminatory image 
which, until late 1973-1974, was buttressed by written examinations and 
other components which screened out disproportionate numbers of 
blacks. Under these circumstances, Mr. Fechter did not err in including 
voluntary withdrawals and did not violate the EEOC guidelines.

2. Plaintiffs urge that other factors could account for the disparities in 
black hiring revealed by Mr. Fechter’s analysis. Plaintiffs claim that fac­
tors such as different arrest records or the fact that minorities did not like 
police work could account for the disparities found. This Court disagrees. 
Mr. Fechter closely approximated the relevant labor market for each of 
the years in question by controlling for age, education and “ member­
ship” in the labor market. It is inconceivable that factors such as height, 
arrest record or personal preference could account for the disparities. 
Throughout the years in question, the Department used discriminatory 
hiring and promotion tests. The Department also discriminated against 
blacks within the Department at least through the early 1960s. The con­
clusion is inescapable that factors other than race could not account for 
the awesome disparities found.

Plaintiffs also argue that it is possible that only the hiring process was 
discriminatory for the years in question and that the promotional model 
was racially neutral throughout. This is a theoretical possibility, but ig­
nores the evidence in the record that the promotional model was also 
discriminatory for many years, notably because it employed I.Q , tests on 
the written examination.

(footnotes continued on next page)



146a

( footnotes continued from  previous page)

3. Mr. Fechter conducted a separate analysis for the years 1971-1973. 
Racial application data was available for these years. Mr. Fechter took this 
data and omitted all applicants who had been rejected preliminarily 
because of age, residence, no drivers license, etc. He then compared the 
numbers of black and white applicants qualified to take the written ex­
amination with the numbers hired. He found a statistically significant dif­
ference in each year which gradually narrowed down from 1971 to 1973. In 
1971,36.2%  of qualified applicants were black, but only 22.3%  of the men 
hired were black. In 1972, 41.9% of qualified applicants were black but 
only 25.2 % of the men who were hired were black. In 1973 the differential 
was much smaller — 43% black applicants and 39.8% blacks hired. 
However, many of the applicants who applied in 1973 were hired in later 
years. Comparison of black applicants with blacks actually hired in 1973 
revealed a statistically significant racial disparity.

Plaintiffs fault Mr. Fechter for not directly testifying that the statistical 
discrepancies showed discrimination in hiring. Mr. Fechter refrained 
from drawing conclusions, leaving any final assessment to be made by 
this Court. Such professional restraint is commendable in an expert 
witness — and unfortunately is all too rare.

Plaintiffs question Mr. Fechter’s analysis on various grounds. First 
they fault him for failing to analyze the various components of the hiring 
process for racial impact, citing § 4C of the Uniform Guidelines, 29 
C .F .R . § 1607.4c. As defendants point out, such an analysis is only 
useful in determining the source o ip resen t  discrimination. It makes no dif­
ference in this case which parts of the hiring model were discriminatory in 
1971-73 so long as it is clear that the model did, overall, discriminate 
against blacks.

Second, plaintiffs state that large numbers of Mr. Fechter’s “ qualified 
applicants” failed to show up for the written examination and that this 
was especially true of the black applicants. Plaintiffs claim that these 
“ non-candidates” inflate minority representation in the applicant pool 
and account for any disparity in hiring. A similar argument was made 
above where plaintiffs claim that large numbers of unqualified blacks 
flooded the ranks of applicants. This Court rejects it for the same reasons 
it previously rejected it. The record does not support Dr. Wollack’s 
underlying theory that because of minority recruitment efforts, the 
Department was flooded with applications from unqualified blacks.

( footnotes continued on next page)



147a

(footnotes continuedfrom previous page)

More important, Mr. Fechter’s analysis of applicants for the years 
1971-1973 compared those who passed the Department’s preliminary 
screening requirements and were thus qualified to take the written ex­
amination. For reasons mentioned above, it was proper to include volun­
tary withdrawals in the analysis.

Third, plaintiffs state that Mr. Fechter failed to account for reap­
plicants who may have applied an unknown number of times and that 
any racial disparity in hiring could be accounted for because the Depart­
ment kept encouraging minorities to re-take the written examination 
which they kept failing. Mr. Fechter testified that reapplicants must be 
considered in analyzing applicant flow data. Dr. Wollack, the plaintiffs’ 
expert, apparently agreed because he used reapplicants in his analysis of 
the promotional examination. As a check, M r. Fechter studied the data 
for 1971 and found that including reapplicants had no statistically signifi­
cant effect on the racial composition of the applicant pool. Plaintiffs are 
reduced to arguing that M r. Fechter did not check on black applicants 
who reapplied several times, — a speculative argument. Dr. Wollack of­
fered a hypothetical alternative explanation for the adverse impact on 
black officers. Dr. Wollack reasoned that the encouragement of minority 
reapplications and minority re-testing on the exam accounted for the 
disparity. In other words, a few minorities failing numerous times 
distorted the figures. Dr. Wollack wisely conceded the speculative nature 
of his hypothetical which among other things assumed that no white ap­
plicants retested twice while 346 black applicants retested twice in the 
same year. The actual preliminary application card data demonstrates 
that Dr. Wollack’s theory is meritless:

Applications by Frequency of Application

Race Year

Total
Applica­

tions Once Twice Three Four

Black 1971 2199 1655 227 26 3
1972 2159 1744 188 13 0

White 1971 3623 2993 283 20 1
1972 2344 2013 155 7 0

4. Finally, plaintiffs attack the entry-level statistics contained in ex-
hibit 12 as fraught with problems because of large numbers of incon­
sistencies, computational errors and recording inaccuracies. Dr. Wollack

( footnotes continued on next page)



148a

IV . 1974 —  T H E  A D O PTIO N  O F A FF IR M A T IV E  
A CTIO N  AND S U B S E Q U E N T  O C C U R R EN C E S

A. The Board of Police Com m issioners and the Adoption  
of Affirmative Action

P rev iou s orders o f  th is co u rt, n o tab ly  its o rd er g ran tin g  
su m m ary  ju d g m e n t on  the issue o f  actu a l and  pu nitive 
d am ag es 4 8 3  F. Su p p . 9 1 9 , h av e  o u tlin ed  how  the C ity ’s 
a ffirm ativ e  action  p lan  o p erated . A lth ou g h  th ere  is no d ispute 
as to  how  or w hy the C ity  in stitu ted  th e  a ffirm ativ e  action  
p la n , th is C o u rt will sketch  the p ertin e n t facts and  the setting  
in  w hich  they  took  p lace.

T h e  co n tin u in g  effect o f  past d iscrim in atio n  w as ap p aren t 
b y  J u n e  o f  19 7 4 . T h e  D e p a rtm e n t w as, ov era ll, 1 7 .2 %  b lack  
b u t on ly  5 .1 5 %  o f  the serg ean ts an d  4 .7 8 %  o f  the lieu ten an ts 
w ere b lack . T h e  1973  e lig ib ility  reg isters from  w hich  p ro m o ­
tio n s w ere to be m ad e offered  little  hop e o f  im p ro v em en t in 
these b leak  figu res. O n  M a y  9 , 19 7 4 , 3 0  p a tro lm en  w ere p ro ­
m oted  to sergeant in  ran k  o rd er from  the top o f  the 1973  e lig i­
b le  reg ister; 29  o f  those p ro m o ted  w ere w hite. O n  M a y  23 , 
1 9 7 4 , 11 sergean ts w ere p ro m o ted  to the ra n k  o f  lie u te n a n t; all 
w ere w hite. T h e  D e p a rtm e n t resolved  to do so m eth in g  about 
the sparse n u m b ers o f  b lack s b e in g  p ro m o ted .

( footnotes continued from previous page)

concluded that the applicant flow records were in trinsically  
“ unbelievable. ”

Unfortunately, it appears that the good doctor attacked a straw man. 
The defendants at trial did not rely on the data in exhibit 12 at trial and 
Dr. Fechter did not use this data in doing his analysis. The reports in ex­
hibit 12 are not applicant flow reports in that they do not trace the pro­
gress of particular applicants through the system. Rather, they are status 
reports of the people in the hiring process at any given time. The figures 
were not relied upon by the defendants to show past discrimination and 
were not meant to be so used.



149a

T h e  develop m ent o f  th e  affirm ativ e  actio n  plan an d  the 
ra c e -c o n s c io u s  p ro m o tio n s  c h a lle n g e d  in  th is  l i t ig a t io n  
resulted  from  action s tak en  by the C ity ’s B o a rd  o f  P o lice  
C o m m issio n ers . T h e  M ic h ig a n  C o n stitu tio n ’s H om e R u le  
P rov ision  art. 7 § 22  con fers u pon  th e  C ity  o f  D e tro it  the right 
o f local se lf-g o v ern m en t. T h e  B o a rd  o f  P o lice  C o m m issio n ers 
was provided  for in D e tr o it ’s C ity  C h a rte r , new ly approved  
by the voters in  th e  1973  e lec tio n . B o a rd  m em b ers w ere a p ­
pointed  by  the M a y o r , C o le m a n  A . Y o u n g , w ith  the approval 
o f the C ity  C o u n c il . T h e ir  d u ties in clu d ed  esta b lish in g  
“ p olicies, ru les and reg u la tio n s”  fo r th e  P o lice  D e p a rtm e n t in 
con su ltation  w ith the C h ie f  o f  P o lice  an d  w ith  the ap p roval o f  
the M a y o r . In  su m , th e  B o a rd  oversees how  the D e p a rtm e n t 
is ru n . T h e  C ity  C h a rte r  also exp ressly  provided th at all 
prom otion s w ere to  b e  m ad e on  th e  basis o f  com p etitive  
exam in atio n s, excep t th a t the B o a rd  could  ap prove ou t-o f- 
order p ro m o tion s at the req u est o f  th e  C h ie f  o f  P o lice .

T h e  p ro ced u res b y  w h ich  the B o a rd  o f  P o lice  C o m m is­
sioners60 approved  the a ffirm ativ e  actio n  p lan  in  J u ly  o f  1974  
and by  w hich  it h as co n tin u ed  to ap prove affirm ativ e  action  
p rom otion s are  u n d isp u te d . T h e  p ro ced u res are fully ou tlined  
in this C o u r t ’s ord er g ran tin g  su m m ary  ju d g m e n t on  m on ey  
dam ages cla im s o th er th an  b ack p a y , 4 8 3  F .S u p p . 9 1 9 . T h e re  
is no need  to rep eat all o f  the d etails h ere  excep t to n ote  th at in 
each in stan ce the C h ie f  o f  P o lice , P h ilip  T a n n ia n  (1 9 7 4 - 1 9 7 6 )  
or W illia m  H a rt (1 9 7 6 -p re s e n t)  m ad e p resen tatio n s to the 
B oard  o f  P o lice  C o m m issio n ers  at p u blic  h earin g s in  w hich  
the need  for a ffirm ativ e  actio n  in  p ro m o tion s w as o u tlin ed . A t

60 The original members who constituted the Board of Police Com­
missioners in 1974 were Douglas Fraser of the United Auto Workers 
Union, the Reverend Charles Butler, Ms. Susan Mills-Peak, Executive 
Director of the Concerned Citizens Council, M r. Alexander E. Ritchie, 
a Detroit Attorney, Mr. Edward Littlejohn, Professor of Law at Wayne 
State University.



150a

each  p re sen ta tio n , the C h ie f  o f  P o lice  u rged  the n eed  to p ro ­
m o te  m ore b lack s 1) to rem ed y  prior d iscrim in a to ry  em p lo y ­
m en t p ractices , 2 ) to ov erco m e p resen t b a rrie rs  b lack s faced  in 
the prom otional m odel; and  3) to m eet the D e p artm e n t’s per­
ceived operational need for m ore b lack  officers. In  each  instance, 
th e  C h ie f  o f  P o lice  p resen ted  sta tistica l d ata  show ing h is to r i­
ca lly  the p ercen tag e  o f  b lack s as co m p ared  to  w hites a t all 
levels in the D e p a rtm e n t and  the p ercen tag e  o f  b lack s in  the 
p op u lation  o f  the C ity  o f  D e tr o it .61

P u rsu an t to the B o a rd ’s exp ress fin d in gs o f  p ast d iscr im in a ­
tio n  and  op eration al n eed , all p ro m o tion s w hich have tak en  
p lace from  J u l y  o f  1974  to the p resen t h a v e , w ith  the B o a r d ’s 
exp ress co n cu rren ce  in  ev ery  case , b een  ra ce -co n sc io u s . As 
previou sly  in d icated , instead  o f  p ro m o tin g  in  strick  ra n k  ord er 
from  the e lig ib ility  lists, the D e p a rtm e n t p ro m o ted  at an  ap ­
p ro x im ate  5 0 -5 0  b lack-w h ite  ra tio . T h u s , i f  th e  D e p a rtm e n t 
h ad  20  op enin gs for lieu ten a n t, it p ro m o ted  the top ten  (1 0 ) 
w hite can d id ates o ff  o f  the e lig ib ility  reg ister and  the top  ten  
(1 0 )  b lack  can d id ates o ff  o f  the e lig ib ility  re g is te r .62 T h e se  
ra ce-co n scio u s p ro m o tion s w ere m ad e o ff  o f  the 1 9 7 3 , 1974  
an d  1976  lie u te n a n t’s e lig ib ility  lists. A s a  p ra ctica l m atte r, 
p ro m o tio n  o f  equ al n u m b ers o f  b lack  an d  w hite can d id ates 
m e a n t th a t the D e p a rtm e n t h ad  to  “ dip d o w n ”  on  the e lig ib il­
ity  reg ister to p ro m o te  b lack s. W h ite  can d id ates w ho would 
h ave b een  p rom oted  had strick  ran k  ord er b een  follow ed, as 
w as cu sto m ary  in  the p ast, felt th at they  h ad  b een  “ passed 
o v e r”  solely b ecau se they  w ere w h ite . A n d , b ecau se  they 
ran ked  h ig h er on  the elig ib lity  list th an  the b lack s w ho w ere

61 See n. 56, supra and accompanying text.

62 Some “ dipping” had taken place in the past when the Chief of Police 
made individual preferential promotions of persons ranked lower on the 
eligibility list. Most such “ dipping” occurred on promotional lists from 
patrolman to sergeant, i.e. persons who had served as bodyguards and/or 
drivers to the Mayor.



151a

prom oted  u n d er the a ffirm ativ e  action  p la n , the w hite  officers 
who w ere “ passed o v e r”  felt th at they  w ere b e tte r  qualified  
than  the a ffirm ativ e  actio n -p ro m o te d  b lack  o ffice rs ,63 T h e  
result w as th is  law su it.

T h e  C o u rt notes th a t the D e p a rtm e n t did p lace a lim it on 
how far it w ould “ d ip ”  to p ro m o te  b lack s u n d er the a ffirm a ­
tive actio n  p lan . N o  can d id ate  w as p ro m o ted  w ho did not 
score at least at the 50 th  p ercen tile  on  the w ritten  e x a m in a ­
tion . In ste a d  o f  re a ch in g  below  th is lev e l, th e  D e p a rtm e n t 
would give a new  w ritten  exam in atio n  and draw  up a  new  eligi­
bility reg ister. T h e  C o u rt also notes that no specific tim etab le 
has b een  established for the term in atio n  o f  the affirm ative 
action p lan . In stead , the B o ard  h as been  period ically  approving 
affirm ative action  p ro m o tion s, conclu d ing  in each  in stan ce that 
although p rogress has b een  m a d e , m u ch  rem ain s to  be done 
and a ffirm ativ e  actio n  should  co n tin u e . T h e r e  is also evid ence 
in the reco rd  th a t the B o a rd  d eferred  settin g  a c u t-o ff date for 
a ffirm ativ e ac tio n  u n til this litig a tio n  is resolved .

F in a lly , th is C o u rt will rep eat som e o f  the ob serv atio ns 
m ade in  its o rd er g ran tin g  su m m ary  ju d g m e n t. T h e r e  is no 
question  th a t the B o a rd  acted  in good fa ith  and th a t it was well 
aw are o f  the sensitive q u estion s it p re se n te d . T h e  B o a rd  was 
well aw are o f  the im p act an y  a ffirm ativ e  action  p lan  w ould 
have on  w hite o fficers, and  sought to b a la n ce  the com p etin g  
in terests . T h e  testim on y  at tr ia l o f  E d w ard  L itt le jo h n , fo rm er 
C h airp erso n  o f  the B o ard  an d  P ro fesso r o f  L aw  a t W a y n e  
S ta te  U n iv ersity  illu m in ated  th is co n cern  clearly :

Q ; A n d  you  also in d ica ted , I  b e liev e , th a t the B o a rd  o f
P o lice  C o m m issio n ers  w as aw are at th e  tim e  the affirm ativ e

63 The hotly-disputed question of the relative qualifications of the black 
officers vis-a-vis the “ passed over” white officers is discussed below in 
section V.



152a

actio n  reso lu tion  w as ad op ted  in  19 7 4  th a t th is p olicy  w ould 
h av e  an  adverse im p act u p on  w hite m ales who placed 
h ig h er on  the list for p ro m o tio n  to lieu ten an t b u t w ere 
passed  ov er by  reason  o f  th at policy  . . .

T H E  W I T N E S S : . . . T h e re  certa in ly  w as ex istin g  in ­
ju r y  and  co n tin u in g  in ju ry , n ot o n ly  to  b la ck  o fficers in  the 
P o lice  D e p artm e n t and  in o u r v iew , the citizen s o f  D e tro it 
an d  the C ity  as a w hole, b u t in  ch oosin g  betw een  the 
adverse im p act o f  ex istin g  co n d itio n s an d  the p erp etu atio n  
o f  the in ju ry  to m in o rity  o fficers and the u n ten ab le  situ ation  
th a t we considered  to be ex istin g  in th e  co m m u n ity , so, on 
the h orn s o f  the d ilem m a, you  ch oose , I  suspect the less evil 
o f  the ch oices and  the one th a t is going  to cau se th e  g reater 
good; and from  th at kind o f  co n tex t, we recognize no m atter 
w hich  decision the com m ission  m ad e, th ere  w ould b e  an 
adverse im pact and certa in ly  the affirm ative action  program  
w ould cause an  im pact adversely on  individual w hite officers 
at the tim e the program  w as adopted and im plem ented .

B u t, ag a in , I  say th at b a la n ce  w as stru ck  b etw een  the 
o th er com p etin g  —  w hat we felt w ere the m o re  com p ellin g  
in terests th an  those you  asked ab o u t.

B . T h e P rom otion al M odel 1 9 7 4  —  P resen t; A n O verview

T h e  affirm ativ e  action  p ro m o tion s ch alleng ed  in this litig a ­
tio n  w ere m ad e from  three  e lig ib ility  reg isters . T h e s e  registers 
w ere com p iled  after the ad m in istra tio n  o f  w ritten  p ro m o tion al 
ex a m in a tio n s in 1 9 7 3 , 1974  an d  1 9 7 6 , th e  scores o f  w hich 
w ere p lugged  in to  the ap p ro p ria te  p ro m o tio n a l m od el. T h e  
1973  p ro m o tion al m odel h as a lread y  b een  discussed at leng th . 
See Sectio n  I IB 3 ( d ) ,  supra. T h e  19 7 4  and 1976  p ro m o tion al 
m od els w ere su bstan tia lly  d ifferen t, a lth ou gh  the w ritten



153a

e x a m in a tio n s , h eav ily  w eighed  in  each  m od el, w ere su b stan ­
tially  the s a m e .64 A n o th e r  e lig ib ility  reg ister w as p rep ared  
follow ing a  p ro m o tio n a l ex a m in a tio n  g iven  in  19 7 7 . H o w ­
ev er, n o  p ro m o tion s h ave b e e n  m ad e o ff  o f  th is m ost recen t 
reg ister an d  the C ity  has rep resen ted  th a t n o n e  w ill b e  m ad e 
pend ing  the o u tco m e o f  th is litig a tio n .

1. Im m ediate Background

B y  m id -1 9 7 4 , the D e p a rtm e n t’s efforts to  im p rov e its h irin g  
p roced u res an d  rem ov e all rac ia lly  d iscrim in ato ry  aspects 
from  th em  had  ju s t  recen tly  tak en  hold . In  ad d itio n , C o m ­
m an d er C a re tti w as in  th e  m idst o f  h is efforts to im p rov e the 
w ritten prom otional exam in ation . W h eth er C om m an d er C a re t­
ti had  succeeded in  m akin g  the exam in ation  job -rela ted  (i.e . 
w hether doing well on  the exam in ation  m eant that a candidate 
would p robably m ake a  better lieu tenant) is a hotly-disputed 
question w hich is discussed below .

T h e re  is n o  q u estio n , how ever, th at th e  1973  and  1 9 7 4  p ro ­
m otio n al ex a m in a tio n s w ere n o t them selv es d iscrim in ato ry . 
P la in t if fs  exp ert w itness, D r . S tep h en  W o lla ck , p erfo rm ed  a 
statistical analysis o f  the 1973 p ro m o tion al m odel to d e ter­
m ine w h eth er th e  e lig ib ility  reg isters resu ltin g  from  th at 
m odel w ould have h ad  an  ad verse im p act on b lack s absen t 
affirm ative actio n  —  i. e . w h eth er a d isp rop o rtion ate  n u m b er 
o f  w hites w ould have b een  p ro m o ted  i f  ran k -o rd er h ad  b een  
follow ed. H e  con clu d ed  th a t th ere  w as no statistica lly  sig n ifi­
can t d ifferen ce in  se lection  rates b etw een  w hite and  b lack  c a n ­
didates. In  o th er w ords, th e  1973  p ro m o tion al m odel did n o t,

64 1974 and subsequent promotional models differed from the 1973 pro­
motional model in four significant areas: 1) An innovative oral board 
procedure was introduced; 2) the weight accorded seniority was reduced; 
3) in-grade seniority was added to the model; 4) the weight given the 
veterans preference was further reduced so that a candidate could accu­
mulate a maximum of two points.



154a

by itse lf, im p act ag ain st b lack s u nd er the c r ite r ia  o f  § 4 D  o f  the 
U n ifo rm  G u id elin es on  E m p lo y ee  S e c tio n  P ro c e d u re s .65 C o r ­
resp on d in g ly , the h eav ily  w eighted  w ritten  e x a m in a tio n  was 
sim ilarly  n o n -d iscrim in ato ry . D r . W o lla ck  fou nd  th at +h ere  
w ere no statistically  sig n ifican t d ifferen ces in  the p assin g  rates 
o f  w hite an d  b lack  can d id ates in 19 7 3 .

D r . W o llack  m ad e s im ilar find ings reg ard in g  the 19 7 4  and 
1976  p ro m o tion al m odels. In  fact, he fou nd  th a t th ese  m odels 
d iscrim in ated  ag ain st w hite ap p lican ts b ecau se  ev en  ab sen t 
a ffirm ativ e  actio n , 2 3 %  o f  the b lack  can d id ates b u t o n ly  11 % 
o f  the w hite candidates w ould have been  prom oted . C on sistent 
w ith this analysis, in 19 7 6 , 71 %  o f  the b lack  cand id ates passed. 
T o  D r. W ollack , this result was novel and in ex p licab le .

T h e  exp lan atio n  for this u nu su al situ ation  w as ob v iou s to 
th e n -C h ie f  o f  P o lice  Philip  T a n n ia n .66 A lth ou g h  b lack s did as 
w ell as w hites on the p ro m o tion al m od el, there w ere very  few 
b la ck  sergeants w ho w ere e lig ib le  for p ro m o tio n  to  the ra n k  o f 
lieu ten a n t. F o r  exam p le , on ly  26  and  35 b la ck  m ales, resp ec­
tiv e ly , com p eted  in  the 1973  and  1974  lieu ten an ts e x a m in a ­
tion s resp ectiv ely . T h e s e  b lack s w ere the “ su rv iv o rs”  who 
had  en d u red  a d iscrim in ato ry  h irin g  system  w hen they  first 
applied  to  th e  D e p a rtm e n t and  who h ad  th en  en d u red  a  d is­
crim in a to ry  p ro m o tion al process w hen they  ad v anced  from  
p atro lm an  to  serg ean t. T h e se  b lack  o fficers co m p etin g  in  the 
1973  an d  1974  lie u te n a n t’s ex am in atio n  had thus m an ag ed  to 
ov erco m e two levels o f  screen in g  w hich  h ad  a severe adverse 
im p act on m in o rities . In  the ja rg o n  o f  the exp ert w itnesses, the

65 § 4d, 29 C .F .R . § 1607.4d, provides that a test or selection device for 
hiring or promotion has an adverse impact if the difference in selection 
rates is less than 80% of the rate for the group with the highest selection 
rates. In addition, the difference must be statistically significant.

66 It was also obvious to the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission 
in its report finding no cause for plaintiff Bratton’s Title V II complaint.



155a

black  serg ean ts w ho w ere ap p ly in g  for p ro m o tio n  to lie u te n ­
ant co n stitu te d  an  “ a ty p ica l p o o l”  o f  (su p e r-a ch ie v in g ) 

ap p lica n ts .67

V ie w ed  from  an o th er p ersp ectiv e , th ere  w ould have b een  
m an y m o re  b lack s elig ib le  fo r p ro m o tio n  and  m an y  m ore 
b lacks p ro m o ted  h ad  d iscrim in atio n  at the ap p lica tion  level 
not severely  red u ced  the n u m b e r o f  b lack s av ailab le  to b e  p ro ­
m oted . T h is  is ap p aren t from  the testim o n y  o f  b lack  officers at 
tria l. In sp e cto r  M e lv in  W illia m s testified  that he failed  the 
D e p a rtm e n t’s w ritten  e n tra n ce  ex a m  m an y tim es ov er a five 
y ear period  b efo re  finally  p assin g  it and  b e in g  ap p ointed  to the 
d ep artm en t. N o t on ly  w ould he h av e  b een  ab le  to take the 
lie u te n a n t’s e x a m in a tio n  y ears ea rlie r  h ad  he b een  ap p ointed  
to the D e p a rtm e n t earlier , he also w ould have receiv ed  ad d i­
tional y ears o f  sen iority  cred it w hich  w ould h ave assisted  h im  
in  p lacin g  h ig h er on  an y  e lig ib ility  ro ste r w h ich  h e w as on . 
T h e re  is sim ilar ev id en ce in  the reco rd  reg ard in g  o th er b lack  
officers su ch  as Jo s e p h  C . B ro w n  w ho failed  the w ritten  e n ­
tran ce  e x a m in a tio n  in  1958  b u t passed  it and w as appointed  
m ore th a n  e ig h t y ears la ter . S im ila rly , M c K in le y  D ou glas 
first applied  for a  p osition  w ith the D e p a rtm e n t in  1958  bu t 
failed the w ritten  ex a m in a tio n  fou r tim es before  p assing  it and 
bein g  ap p o in ted  in  O cto b e r  o f  1 9 6 6 . P la in tiffs  op enly  co n ced ­
ed that the D e p a rtm e n t in ten tio n a lly  d iscrim in ated  against 
V iv ia n  E d m o n d . T h e r e  is no w ay to re cre a te  the past and  
d eterm in e w here an y  given  ind iv id u al w ould b e  tod ay absen t

67 Yet another conceptual view is that the promotional structure is 
pyramidal. However one characterizes it, it is clear that where all promo­
tions to lieutenant derive from a pool of sergeants who in turn come from 
a pool of patrolmen, the selection of lieutenants reflects discrimination in 
the previous selection of sergeants and in the hiring of patrolmen.



156a

p a s t  d i s c r im in a t io n .68 T h e  c o n c lu s io n  is in e s c a p a b le ,  
h ow ev er, th at w hen view ed as a c lass, m an y  m o re  b lacks 
w ould have b een  p resen t in  all ran k s, in clu d in g  th at o f  lie u te ­
n a n t, had  d iscrim in ato ry  p ractices n ot b een  follow ed.

68 The case of Lieutenant Kenneth Johnson illustrates well the continu­
ing effects of the Department’s discrimination. Lt. Johnson first applied 
with the Department in July  of 1962, but failed the written examination. 
He reapplied and failed the examination again in September, 1962. He 
finally passed the written examination in December, 1962. However, a 
Department physician advised him that he could not be approved unless 
a hemorrhoidal condition was corrected. A private physician advised the 
Department in writing that Lt. Johnson’s condition would not affect his 
performance, but the Department held its position. Lt. Johnson was 
eventually appointed to the Department on May 13, 1963, after having 
corrective surgery.

Lt. Johnson sat for the sergeant’s exam in 1967 and 1969, but was not 
promoted. In April of 1972, he sat for the exam a third time. After some 
corrections on his ranking were made, he ended up ranked 470. A total of 
450 promotions were made from the 1972 eligibility register. Had Lt, 
Johnson been appointed to the Department when he had first applied, his 
added seniority score would have placed him within the first 450 persons 
promoted.

On December 16, 1973, Lt. Johnson sat once again for promotion to 
sergeant. He ended up being ranked 86, but only after successfully ap­
pealing a service rating on the grounds of intentional racial discrimina­
tion by the supervisor who rated him. In addition, of the six sections on 
the examination, Lt. Johnson performed least well on the verbal inven­
tory section and Watson-Glaser critical think section, ranking in the 45th 
and 50th percentile, respectively, of those who sat for the exam. This is 
unsurprising because such non-job related tests have traditionally im­
pacted against minorities. What Lt. Johnson’s ranking would have been 
absent these sections is unknown.

Lt. Johnson was promoted to the rank of Sergeant on August 1, 1974; 
one of the first beneficiaries of the Department’s Affirmative Action plan. 
Since 150 persons were ultimately promoted from the 1973 sergeant’s 
eligibility list, he would have been promoted anyway; but at a later date.

( footnotes continued on next page)



157a

T h e  p lain tiffs con ced e  th a t the ab ov e ex p la n a tio n , fully 
ou tlin ed  in  the testim o n y  o f  d efen d an ts’ exp ert w itness, D r . 
R ic h a rd  B a rre tt , is “ re a s o n a b le .”  P la in tiffs  a tte m p t to reb u t 
the ap p aren t fact th at a  h igh ly  select, a ty p ical pool o f  b lack  
cand id ates com p eted  for p ro m o tio n  to lieu ten an t by focu sin g  
on  the resu lts o f  the 1 9 7 6  lieu ten an ts  e x a m in a tio n . P la in tiffs 
argu e th a t the p ool o f  b lack  sergean ts av ailab le  for p ro m o tion  
to the ra n k  o f  lieu ten an t in  1976  h ad  been  artificia lly  in creased  
by affirm ativ e  a c tio n  p ro m o tion s o f  b lack s from  p atro lm an  to 
sergean t in  1 9 7 4 , 1975  and  1976  and  th at th ere  was thus no 
d iscrim in ato ry  screen in g  effect a t the low er se rg e a n t’ s p ro m o ­
tion al level. P la in tiffs ’ ex p e rt, D r . W o lla ck , did an  analysis o f  
the 2 2 6  b la ck  an d  9 6 5  w hite p atro lm en  w ho sat for the 1973 
serg ean ts’ ex a m in a tio n . B eca u se  o f  a ffirm ativ e  actio n  p ro m o ­
tions o f  b lack s from  the ran k  o f  p a tro lm a n  to  the ran k  o f 
serg ean t, la rg e  n u m b ers  o f  these b la ck  serg ean ts w ere eligible 
to sit for the 19 7 6  ex a m  for p ro m o tio n  to the ra n k  o f  lieu te­
n an t. D r . W o lla ck  ca lcu la ted  th at o f  the 2 2 6  b lack  an d  965  
w hite p atro lm en  w ho sat fo r the 1973 se rg e a n ts ’ ex a m in a tio n ,

( footnotes continued from  previous page)

On May 31, 1976, Lt. Johnson sat for the written exam for promotion 
to lieutenant and ranked 96 on the eligibility register. Correction of an er­
ror in his service rating results in a ranking of 90. Had Lt. Johnson been 
promoted in 1972 instead of 1974, he would have obtained the 3.0 max­
imum seniority credit for time-in-grade at the sergeant’s rank. He would 
have ranked 86 on the eligibility roster. Since 88 promotions were made 
from this roster, he would have been promoted had the “ regular” pro­
motional scheme been in effect. Instead, Lt. Johnson was promoted to 
the rank of Lieutenant under the Department’s affirmative action plan in 
August of 1977.

Lt. Johnson’s case demonstrates the effect of “ double screening” at 
the lieutenant’s rank. Absent discriminatory testing, Lt. Johnson would 
probably have made it to the rank of Lieutenant by 1977. The affirmative 
action promotions which Lt. Johnson benefitted from, in a very real 
sense, only made up for past discrimination against him.



158a

14 o f  the b lack s ( 6 .1 9 % ) ,  b u t on ly  7 o f  the w hites ( .0 7 % )  
w ould h ave been  p ro m o ted  to the ra n k  o f  lieu ten a n t ab sen t a f­
firm ativ e  actio n  at th at level. A cco rd in g  to D r . W o lla ck , this 
analysis d isproves d efen d an ts’ “ d ou ble sc re e n in g ’ ’ th eory .

T h is  C o u rt can n o t ag ree . F irs t , th is an alysis deals only  w ith 
p ro m o tion s m ad e from  the 19 7 6  e lig ib ility  reg ister ; p lain tiffs 
im p licitly  con ced e th at the 1973  and  1 9 7 4  lie u te n a n ts ’ e x ­
am in atio n s p erp etu ated  p ast d iscrim in atio n  ag a in st b lack s. 
M o re  im p o rtan tly , p la in tiffs an alysis is in co m p lete  for a v a rie ­
ty  o f  reason s. P la in tiffs ’ an alysis is b ased  on  a sm all frag m en t 
o f  w hat w ould oth erw ise, in  the ab sen ce  o f  d iscrim in a tio n , be 
a  typ ical pool o f  b lack  ap p lican ts. A b sen t from  p l a i n t i f f s ’ 

an alysis are b lacks w ho w ere d iscrim in ato rily  screened  ou t for 
y ears a t the en try  level an d  those sim ilarly  screened  ou t a t the 
se rg e a n ts ’ level. S im p ly  stated , D r . W o lla c k ’s an alysis did not 
in clu d e the w hole p ictu re .

D r . W o lla c k ’s ow n testim on y  d em o n stra tes th at even  with 
the im p act o f  a ffirm ativ e  actio n  at the se rg e a n ts ’ level, there 
still existed  an  aty p ical pool o f  b lack  can d id ates co m p etin g  for 
p ro m o tio n  to the ran k  o f  lieu ten an t. D r . W o lla ck  fou nd that 
there  w as a  statistically  sig n ifican t im p act ag a in st w hite m ale 
o fficers on  b o th  the 1976  lie u te n a n ts ’ w ritten  e x a m in a tio n  as 
w ell as the overall 1976  p ro m o tio n a l m od el. In  fact, the pass 
ra te  on  the w ritten  ex am  for b la ck  m ale  o fficers w as 71 %  w hile 
th a t o f  w hite m ale officers w as only  49  %  .

D r . W o lla ck  cou ld  not a cco u n t for this d iscrep an cy . H e 
cla im ed  to have n ev er seen su ch  a d iscrep an cy  in  fav or o f 
b lack s. N orm ally , adverse im p act on  w ritten  cog n itiv e  tests 
w as ag ain st b lack s, not w hites. F u rth e r , such adverse im p act 
ag a in st b lacks is gen erally  m ax im ized  by a h igh  c u t-o ff score 
and  ran k  o rd erin g  w hich  rew ards h igh  scores as opposed to 
p assin g  scores. A ll o f  these factors w ere p resen t on  the w ritten  
e x a m in a tio n . D r. W o lla ck  con ced ed  the ab o v e , bu t still would



159a

not provid e a n  ex p la n a tio n  for the p ro -b lack , an ti-w h ite  im ­
pact o f  the ex a m in a tio n . D r . B a r r e t t ’ s analysis provides such 
an e x p la n a tio n .69

2 . E fforts to Im p ro v e the P ro m o tio n al M odel

S h o rtly  a fter  the ad op tion  o f  the A ffirm ativ e  A ctio n  P ro ­
gram , in  J u l y  o f  1 9 7 4 , th e  D e p a rtm e n t m ad e ad d itional efforts 
to im p rov e the p ro m o tio n a l m od el.

O n  A u g u st 16 , 19 7 4 , th en  C h ie f  o f  P o lice  T a n n ia n  m ad e a 
p re lim in ary  a n n o u n cem en t to the B o a rd  th a t the D e p artm e n t 
had rev am p ed  its p ro m o tio n a l m od el for lieu ten an ts. B efo re  
ob ta in in g  B o a rd  ap p roval o f  the new  m od el, C h ie f  T a n n ia n  
review ed it w ith  the th e n  p resid en t o f  the L ie u ten a n ts  and  
S e rg e a n t’s A sso cia tio n  (L S A ) , Jo s e p h  C la rk . A fter m ak in g  
som e ch an g es to  su it the L S A , T a n n ia n  o b ta in ed  B o a rd  ap ­
proval o f  a  sim ilar, th o u g h  less jo b  re lated  m odel on  A u gust 
30 , 1974 . T h e  m odel th at w as approved  and  im p lem en ted  in ­
cluded the follow ing ch an g es:

1. A  m in im u m  w ritten  e x a m in a tio n  p assin g  score o f  70 
p ercen t w as im p osed ;

2. T h e  w eight accord ed  the w ritten  e x a m in a tio n  w as in ­
creased  from  5 0  to  55  p ercen t o f  the m od el;

69 Dr. Wollack did state that a “ double screening” effect could reduce 
the number of blacks available for promotion, but maintained that this 
would not account for the startling percentage disparity in black vs. white 
performance on the written examination. It appears intuitively obvious 
to this Court that since only the very best blacks survived the double 
screening which took place, that it is unsurprising that a group of them 
might do better on a written examination than whites. The Court also 
notes that a statistically significant disparity favoring blacks only occur­
red on the 1976 examination. At the very least, this type of unexplained 
fluctuation indicates that an atypical pool of black applicants is present at 
the lieutenants level.



160a

3 . A n  oral p ro m o tio n a l ev a lu a tio n  b o a rd  w ith  a  w eight 
o f  tw elve (1 2 )  p ercen t w as in trod u ced  in  p lace  o f  the p ro m o ­
tio n a l ra tin g ;

4 . R e g u la r  sen iority  w as accord ed  a  w eight o f  6 p ercen t 
o f  the m odel and w as to  be earn ed  at the ra te  o f  114 p ercen t 
p er y ea r o f  service for the first fou r y ears an d  on e (1 )  p ercen t 
for the fifth  y ear;

5 . A  new  ‘ ‘ in grad e ’ ’ sen iority  fa c to r  w as estab lish ed  and 
w as to b e  earn ed  at the ra te  o f  on e (1 )  p ercen t p er y ea r from  
th e  d ate o f  ap p o in tm en t to the ra n k  o f  serg ean t up to a  m a x ­
im u m  o f  th ree  (3 )  p ercen t o f  the m odel.

T h e  new  p ro m o tion al m od el w as in  several resp ects a 
su b stan tia l im p rov em en t ov er the p rio r m od el. S e n io rity  had  
b e e n  effectively  dow ngraded . O n ly  the in -g rad e sen iority  
co m p o n e n t a ffected  an  o ffice r ’ s p osition  on  the lie u te n a n ts ’ 
e lig ib ility  re g is te r .70 T h e  p ro m o tio n a l ra tin g , w hich  in  the o p i­
n io n  o f  C o m m a n d e r C a re tti had  an ad verse im p act on 
m in o ritie s71, an d  w hich  w as otherw ise o f  little  d em on stra ted  
v a lu e , h ad  b een  elim in ated . In  ad d itio n , som e im p rov em en ts 
w ere m ad e on  the w ritten  ex a m in a tio n . M o st im p o rtan tly , an 
o ra l b o a rd , w hich  for the first tim e sought to  m easu re  in ta n g i­
b le  lead ersh ip  and  p erson ality  q u alities  th at are  reg ard ed  as 
essen tia l for lieu ten an ts , w as in trod u ced .

a. Oral B oards

T h e  o ra l b o ard  p ro ced u re w as d eveloped  b y  tw o outside 
p sychologists h ired  by  the D e p a rtm e n t. It  w as in trod u ced  
b ecau se  the D e p a rtm e n t w ished to  m easu re  c e rta in  ab ilities

70 The Department’s experience with the three examinations ad­
ministered since the adoption of the new model revealed that virtually 
every officer who achieved a position on the lieutenants eligibility register 
was awarded the maximum regular seniority credit.

71 The reason for this was that minorities had less seniority and promo­
tional ratings, like service ratings, tend to correlate with seniority.



161a

w hich  it tho u g h t w ere n ot b e in g  m easu red  by the o th er co m ­
p on en ts o f  th e  p ro m o tio n a l m od el. C o m m a n d e r  C a re tt i 
described  the p u rp ose o f  the o ra l b o ard  as follow s:

T h e r e  w ere a n u m b er o f  p u rp oses. W e  felt th a t it m igh t 
e n h a n ce  o u r a b ility  to  m easu re  d im en sion s th a t w e re n ’t b e ­
in g  p ro bed  an y p lace  else in  the p ro m o tion al process. S in ce  
this is a  C ity  w ith  a la rg e  m in o rity  p op u lation , we felt that 
ce rta in  aspects o f  attitu d es should b e  m easu red  —  attitudes 
tow ard  m in o rities , a ttitu d es tow ards the w hole police- 
co m m u n ity  re la tio n  p rocess, excessive force an d  its ap p lica ­
tio n , eth ics in  P o lice  W o rk , p oise, ju d g m e n t, lo g ica l th in k ­
ing . W e  th o u g h t these facto rs th at w e re n ’t b e in g  m easu red  
an y p lace  else in  o u r p rocess w ere very  im p o rta n t in term s o f 
th e ir  p resen ce or ab sen ce in  o u r su pervisors.

In  the p ast, the D e p a rtm e n t h ad  used an  oral in terv iew  as 
p art o f  the p ro m o tio n a l m od el. I t  w as on e o f  th e  d ev ices w hich  
now D e p u ty  C h ie f  Ja m e s  B a n n o n  testified  w as used to exclu de 
b lack  o fficers from  the h ig h er ran k s in  the 4 0 ’s and  5 0 ’s. 
R e co g n iz in g  th at an  oral in terv iew  p ro ced u re cou ld  b e  ab u s­
ed, th e  D e p a rtm e n t b u ilt  sa feg u ard  p ro ce d u res in to  the 
system  to assu re o b jec tiv ity  and  fa irn ess. T h e  m em b ers o f  the 
oral b o ard  are  draw n from  the su p erv isory  ran ks o f  m a jo r  law  
en fo rcem en t ag en cies o th er th a n  the D e tro it  P o lice  D e p a rt­
m en t. E a c h  can d id ate  for p ro m o tio n  w ho scores ab ov e the fif­
tieth  p ercen tile  on  the w ritten  ex a m in a tio n  is in terv iew ed  b y  a 
panel con sistin g  o f  on e b lack  and  tw o w hite o fficers. T h e  in ­
te r v ie w e r s  a r e  g iv e n  s p e c ia l t r a in in g  b y  p r o fe s s io n a l 
psychologists b efo re  an y  can d id ates are  in terv iew ed .

E a c h  p an el m e m b e r is req u ired  to  m ak e an  in d ep en d ent 
evalu ation  w ithou t p rior d iscu ssion  o f  the can d id ate  w ith 
other p an el m em b ers . C o n fo rm ity  w ith  this req u irem e n t is



162a

assured  by  the p resen ce o f  D e p a rtm e n t and  u n io n  rep resen ­
tatives to w itness the sco rin g  p ro cess. G e n e ra lly  the in terv iew  
lasts 30  to 45 m in u te s .72

C o m m a n d e r C a re tti , w ho h as ov erseen  the p rocess since its 
in cep tio n  in  1 9 7 4 , testified  th a t it is on e o f  the m o re  effective 
p arts o f  the p ro m o tio n al m odel for p red ictin g  the p o ten tia l o f 
can d id ates to p erfo rm  effectively  as lieu ten a n ts . H e  b ased  this 
con clu sio n  on  h is p erson al o b serv atio n  th at the o fficers he 
knew  to be good p erfo rm ers receiv ed  h igh  ra tin g s and  those 
w ho he knew  to b e  p oo r p erfo rm ers got low ra tin g s. C h ie f  
H a r t  ag reed  w ith  C o m m a n d e r C a r e t t i ’s assessm en t. F o rm e r  
C h ie f  P a tr ick  M u rp h y  w as in  a g reem en t as to  the im p o rtan ce  
o f  g au g in g  the skills an d  ab ilities  m easu red  by  the oral b oard .

P la in tiffs ’ p osition  on  the oral b oard  p ro ced u re is cu riou s. 
T h e y  ap p ear to  applaud  the in stitu tio n  o f  the o ra l b o a rd  and 
co m m en d  the a ttem p t to m easu re  the q u alities w hich  the oral 
b o ard  is d esigned  to m easu re . H o w ev er, they  com p lain  
b ecau se  the affirm ativ e  ac tio n  p lan  allow ed m ost b lack s who 
passed  the w ritten  ex a m  alone to  be p ro m o ted . T h u s , they 
a rg u e , b lack s w ere p ro m o ted  regard less o f  th e ir  o ra l b oard  
scores w hile w h ites’ o ra l b o ard  scores d irectly  a ffected  their 
ra n k in g . W h a te v e r  force this a rg u m en t has is d issip ated  by

72 Just prior to the interview the candidates must draw a card which 
determines the panel by which he will be interviewed. By a similar ran­
dom method he then selects a series of hypothetical fact situations for 
which supervisory action should be taken. Before the panel he must rank 
the relative seriousness of each of the situations and then outline how he 
would deal with two of them. He must defend his judgments and respond 
to questions from the panel members until they are satisfied that they 
know enough about the candidate to rate him or her in each of the ten (10) 
designated areas.



163a

the fact th a t the b lack s w ho w ere prom oted  had  o ra l b oard  
scores equ al to w hites w ho w ere p ro m o te d .73

73 Dr. Wollack did testify that the oral board is discriminatory against 
white officers “ in its content and result.” The reason was that the oral 
board was concerned with “ attitudes toward minorities,” which is one of 
the 10 rating scales, and that many of the fact situations dealt with 
racially-oriented subject matter. Dr. Wollack emphasized that no similar 
ratings were made regarding black officer’s attitudes toward whites. Fur­
ther, Dr. Wollack’s statistical analysis revealed that black candidates had 
an 80% chance of obtaining an above-average score on the oral board 
while white candidates only had a 43% chance.

This Court sees nothing wrong with the oral board’s concern with anti­
black attitudes. The reason is that anti-black attitudes within the Depart­
ment have been a serious problem for many years. As this Court will 
discuss later in this opinion regarding the defendants’ operational need 
defense, tensions between the black com m unity and the still 
predominantly white police department have been a serious problem in 
Detroit. The need to change anti-black attitudes and practices has been 
recognized by responsible City officials since at least the 1967 Riot, which 
the National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders found was caused 
in large measure by discriminatory police practices.

There is nothing in the record which suggests that anti-white attitudes 
by blacks currently present a problem which requires similar attention.

If anti-white attitudes develop or prove to be a problem in the Depart­
ment, there is nothing to prevent the City from moving to combat them. 
Indeed, the City has every incentive to do so since, as it emphasized at 
trial, effective police work depends on cooperation with all citizens.

In equating the need to check for anti-black attitudes with the need to 
check for anti-white attitudes, Dr. Wollack ignored the sad history of 
police-community relations in Detroit which appears clearly in the 
record. Given this history, the City cannot be faulted for emphasizing the 
problem of anti-black attitudes at the oral boards.

Dr. Wollack, however, did provide a probable explanation for why 
blacks did better at the oral boards than whites — blacks are more sen­
sitive to the problem of racial prejudice, especially anti-black prejudice. 
The oral board procedure which Dr. Wollack regarded as discriminatory 
to whites, in reality, operated to test for an important trait.



164a

b. T he Written Exam ination

T h is  C o u rt h as a lread y  co m m en ted  on  som e o f  the ch an g es 
m ad e on  the w ritten  e x a m in a tio n . B a sica lly , the D e p a rtm e n t, 
th rou g h  C o m m a n d e r C a re tti , tried  to im p rov e the ex a m  from  
19 7 0  throu g h  19 7 4 , the last y ear in  w hich  ch an g es w ere m ad e. 
In  th a t y e a r , C o m m a n d e r C a re tti drop ped  the g en era l ap ­
titu d e W a tso n -G la se r  C ritica l T h in k in g  A p p ra isa l T e s t  and 
a ttem p ted  to red esign  the v erb al in v en to ry  section  o f  the exam  
to  m ak e  it m ore jo b -re la te d . A fter the 19 7 4  e x a m in a tio n , 
C o m m a n d e r  C a re tti w anted  to m ak e ad d itio n al ch an g es, bu t 
w as told  n ot to  b ecau se the C ity  w as locked  in  a la b o r  d ispute 
w ith  the L ie u ten a n ts  and S e rg e a n t’s A sso cia tio n  and the e x ­
a m in a tio n  w as, to  an  u nsp ecified  d eg ree , in  is su e .74

c. E lig ibility  f o r  Promotion

T h e  D e p a rtm e n t co n tin u ed  its p o licy  o f  in crea s in g  the 
ed u catio n a l req u irem en ts for p ro m o tion s. In  1 9 7 4 , officers 
w ere req u ired  to have 3 0  q u a rte r  o r  20  sem ester h ou rs o f  co l­
lege cred it to  b e  prom oted  to lieu ten an t. In  1 9 7 6 , 45  q u arter 
o r  3 0  sem ester h ou rs w ere req u ired . In  1 9 7 7 , the req u irem e n t 
w as raised  to 70 q u a rter o r 4 0  sem ester hou rs.

74 Defendants attempted to present testimony regarding the labor 
dispute and why all exam changes were frozen in 1974, but plaintiffs 
strongly objected, claiming that to do so would damage the confidentiali­
ty of the pending labor negotiations. The parties eventually presented a 
vague stipulation regarding what occurred. In their brief, however, 
plaintiffs attempted to blame the City for not improving the examination 
more. Given the unsettled state of the record, the only reasonable conclu­
sion to draw is that the City’s moratorium on further improvements on 
the written examination was bona-fide.



165a

V. TH E MATTER OF RELATIVE QUALIFICATIONS

T h e  E q u a l E m p lo y m en t O p p o rtu n ity  C o o rd in a tin g  C o u n ­
c il’s “ P o licy  S ta te m e n t on  A ffirm ativ e  A ctio n  P ro g ram s and 
L o ca l G o v e rn m e n t A g e n c ie s ,”  41 F ed . R e g . 3 8 , 8 1 4  (S e p t. 
13, 1976 ) en d orses the ad op tion  and  im p lem en ta tio n  o f  a ffir­
m ativ e  actio n  p ro g ra m s, in clu d in g  the use o f  goals and  tim e­
tables. T h e  gu idelines ou tlin e the d esirab ility  o f  a ffirm ativ e 
action  w hich  em p h asizes rela tiv e  q u alifica tio n s:

U n d e r a  system  o f  goals, th erefo re , an  em p loy er is n ever 
req u ired  to  h ire  a p erson  w ho does n ot have q u alifica tio n s 
n eed ed  to  p erfo rm  the jo b  su ccessfu lly ; and  a n  em p loy er is 
n ev er req u ired  to  h ire  su ch  an  u n q u alified  p erson  in 
p re feren ce  to  an o th er ap p lican t w ho is q u alified ; n or is an  
e m p lo y e r  re q u ire d  to  h ire  a  less q u a lifie d  p erso n  in  
p re feren ce  to a  b e tte r  qu alified  p erson , provided that the 
q u a lif ic a t io n s  u sed  to  m a k e  su ch  re la tiv e  ju d g m e n ts  
rea listica lly  m easu re  the p e rso n ’s ab ility  to do the jo b  in 
q u estio n , o r o th er jo b s  to w hich  h e is likely  to  p rogress. T h e  
term s “ less q u a lifie d ”  and “ b e tte r  q u a lified ”  as used in  
this m em o ran d u m  are n ot in ten d ed  to d istinguish  am on g  
person s w ho a re  su bstan tia lly  eq u ally  w ell qualified  in 
term s o f  b e in g  ab le  to p erfo rm  the jo b  successfu lly . U n lik e  
q u o tas , th erefo re , w hich  m ay  call for a  p re feren ce for the 
u n q u alified  ov er the q u alified , o r  o f  the less qu alified  over 
the b e tte r  q u alified  to  m eet the n u m erica l req u ire m e n t, a 
goal reco g n izes, th a t person s are  to b e  ju d g e d  on  individual 
ab ility , and  th erefo re  is con sisten t w ith  the princip les o f  
m erit h irin g .

A  key th em e w hich  ru ns th rou g h o u t p la in tiffs ’ case is that 
the b lack  officers w ho w ere p ro m o ted  “ a h e a d ”  o f  the w hite o f­
ficers w ere n ot as q u a lifie d .75 T h e y  poin t ou t th at the C ity

75 Plaintiffs are careful not to argue, however, that the affirmative action 
promotees are unqualified. Rather, they argue that the out-of-order pro- 
motees were less qualified than the white officers who were passed over.



166a

“ d ip p ed ”  dow n on  the e lig ib ility  reg ister  to  p ro m o te  b lack s. 
T h u s , as a g rou p , the b lack  o fficers ran k ed  low er on  the 
e lig ib ility  reg ister th an  w hite o fficers who w ould h ave b een  
p ro m o ted  ab sen t a ffirm ativ e  a c tio n .

A . T h e  W r it te n  E x a m

[3] In  ord er to  “ m ak e i t ”  on to  the p ro m o tio n a l e lig ib ility  
ro ste r in an y  given  y ea r, a can d id ate  had  to  score above the 
5 0 th  p ercen tile  on  the w ritten  e x a m in a tio n . W h e re  th a t ca n ­
d id ate ran k ed  on  the list, how ever, depended  on  a  v arie ty  o f 
facto rs  and  the w eight accord ed  each  facto r in a given  y ear. 
S e e  section  I V ,  supra. T h e  m ost im p o rtan t fa c to r  in  an y  given 
y e a r  w as a ca n d id a te ’s score on  the w ritten  ex a m in a tio n , 
w h ich  w as alw ays in  excess o f  50  %  o f  the fin al com p o site  score 
w hich  is used to ran k  can d id ates. G iv e n  the h eav y  w eight that 
h as alw ays b een  accord ed  the ca n d id a te ’s w ritten  ex am  score, 
those w ith  the h igh est test scores have p laced  h igh est on  the 
e lig ib ility  reg ister. T h is  is ap p aren t from  a  review  o f  the 1973 , 
19 7 4  and  1976  lie u te n a n t’s e lig ib ility  reg isters. T h o s e  c a n ­
d idates w ho scored  h ighest on  the w ritten  ex am  d o m in ate  the 
top  o f  the reg isters. T h e  p rin cip a l issue, th e n , is w h eth er the 
o fficers w ho w ere b e tte r  test-tak ers w ere n ecessarily  those w ith 
the best p oten tia l to b e  lieu ten an ts.

P u t an oth er w ay, it is im p o rtant to assess w hether the w ritten  
e x a m in a t io n , and/or th e  p ro m o tio n a l m o d e l w as “ jo b  
re la te d .”  B y  d efin ition , a jo b -re la te d  e x a m in a tio n  or se lection  
p ro ced u re is one w hich  can  b e  d em on stra ted  to h ave a m a n i­
fest relation sh ip  to  the jo b . In  the ord in ary  case , w hen a  h irin g  
or p ro m o tio n a l p roced u re is fou nd to  d iscrim in ate  against 
m in o rities , the em p loyer has a  h eav y  b u rd en  o f  show ing that 
the se lection  p roced u re is jo b -re la te d . T h e  recen tly  p ro m u l­
g a ted  U n ifo rm  G u id e lin e s  on  E m p lo y e e  S e le c t io n  P r o ­
ced u res, 29  C .F .R .  § 1607  et. seq. ou tlin e in detail how  this



167a

m u st b e  d one. B a sica lly , an  em p loy er m u st show  th a t an  e x ­
a m in a tio n  w as e ith er  “ co n ten t v a lid ,” 76 “ crite rio n  v a lid ,” 77 
or “ co n stru ct v a lid .” 78 See e.g. A lbem arle P aper Co. v. M oody, 
422  U .S .  4 0 5 , 95  S .C t .  2 3 6 2 , 45  L .E d .2 d  2 8 0  (1 9 7 5 ) ; U nited  
States v. City o f  Chicago, 573  F .2 d  4 1 6 , 4 2 5 -2 7  (7 th  C ir . 1 9 7 8 ). 
D e m o n stra tin g  this is n ot easy. See e.g. Firefighters Institute F or  
R a c ia l E quality  v. U nited States, 5 4 9  F .2 d  5 0 6  (8 th  C ir . 1977) 
(F ir e m a n ’s p ro m o tio n a l ex am  did m easu re  m an y  n ecessary  
skills, b u t w as n o t co n ten t valid  b ecau se  it did n ot m easu re  
su pervisory  skills). A  p rop erly  co n d u cted  jo b  v a lid ation  study 
is b o th  costly  an d  tim e-co n su m in g .

I t  is u nd isp u ted  th a t n e ith er  the w ritten  ex am  n o r the 
overall p ro m o tio n a l m odel in  this case h as b een  p roven  to  be 
jo b -re la te d . T h e  C ity  n ev er p erfo rm ed  a p ro p er jo b -v a lid a tio n  
stu d y .79 O f  co u rse , a h ir in g  or p ro m o tio n a l system  could still

76 This requires a thorough, individual task analysis of the job to be per­
formed . All or nearly all important parts of the job must be covered on the 
test and the test’s content must clearly approximate the job.
77 This requires that test scores correlate with proven criteria of successful 
job performance.
78 This requires that the test measure certain characteristics in job appli­
cants and that these same characteristics be proven to be important to job 
performance.

79 Plaintiffs claim that the defendants should be estopped from arguing 
this issue because they were derelict in not performing a job-validation 
study. This Court disagrees. The City undoubtedly acted in good faith at 
all times and tried to improve both its hiring and its promotional tests. 
Preliminary validation studies were done by Andres Inn and John 
Furcon on the promotional examination which indicated that the Depart­
ment was on the right track. Finally, as is discussed below, to accept 
plaintiffs’ argument is to wreck all voluntary affirmative action efforts.

The plaintiffs also argue that it is irrelevant whether the promotional 
model and/or the written promotional exam were job-related. They point 
out that under Title V II, as interpreted in G riggs v. D u ke P ow er C o ., 401 
U .S. 424, 91 S.Ct. 849, 28 L.Ed.2d 158 (1971), an employer need show 
that its written examination or selection device is job-related only when

( footnotes continued on next page)



168a

b e jo b -re la te d  in  fact b u t n ot b e  p ro ven  to be jo b -re la te d  for 
failu re to p erform  the p rop er valid ation  study. T h is  is precisely  
w hat p lain tiffs c la im  h as h ap p en ed  in  this case . T h e y  p o in t to 
C o m m a n d e r  C a r e t t i ’ s d iligen t efforts o v er the y ears to  e lim i­
n a te  d iscred ited  I .Q .  testin g  and  to m ak e the w ritten  exam  
reflect w hat a  lieu ten an t n eed ed  to know . T h e y  em p h asize 
th at C o m m a n d e r  C a re tti w as earn est and  en erg e tic  in  his ef­
forts to  put to g eth er a  valid  ex a m in a tio n . H e  used  in cu m b en t 
lie u te n a n ts , in clu d in g  b la ck  lieu ten a n ts , to  draw  up q u es­
tion s. H e  a ttend ed  pro fession al sem in ars an d  kep t up w ith  the 
lite ra tu re . P la in tiffs  co n clu d e  b y  e n d o rs in g  C o m m a n d e r  
C a r e t t i ’s con clu sio n  th at the ex a m  w as jo b -re la te d .

T h e  C o m m a n d e r’s good fa ith  an d  d iligence are  n ot in 
d isp u te. H ow ev er, good fa ith  an d  d iligen ce do n ot alw ays a 
jo b -re la te d  exam  m ak e. I t  is u n d erstan d ab le  w hy C o m ­
m an d er C a re tti w ould testify  that the ex a m in a tio n s h e  w orked 
so h ard  to p erfect w ere jo b -re la te d . H ow ev er, d efen d an ts’ ex ­
p ert, D r . R ic h a rd  S . B a rre tt , testified  th a t b ased  on  h is review  
o f  the w ritten  ex a m in a tio n s , h e  had  n o  reason  to con clu d e that 
an y  o f  the se rg ean t’s o r lie u te n a n t’s ex a m in a tio n s from  1966 
th rou g h  1976  w ere co n te n t-v a lid .80 P la in tiffs ’ p sy ch o m etri­
c ia n , D r . W o llack  testified  th at he cou ld  not tell w h eth er o r not

( footnotes continuedfrom previous page)

the exam or selection device is discriminatory. If  a written examination 
or selection device does not have adverse effects on blacks or other 
minorities, the employer does not have to show that it is job-related. See 
E E O C  v. N ava jo  R efin in g  C o ., 593 F.2d 988 (10th Cir. 1979); Sm ith v. 
Troyan, 520 F.2d 492 (6th Cir. 1975), cert, denied, 426 U .S. 934, 96 S.Ct. 
2646, 49 L.Ed.2d 385 (1976).

As a general statement of the law, plaintiffs are correct. However, in 
this case, the promotional model perpetuated past discrimination. More­
over , the issue of relative qualifications is a factor which is useful in deter­
mining the reasonableness of the voluntary affirmative action program 
here in question. See Section V I C4, infra.

80 Although the sergeant’s and lieutenant’s examinations were not iden­
tical from 1973 to 1976, they were substantially similar.



169a

the D e p a r t m e n t ’ s p ro m o tio n a l e x a m in a t io n s  w ere  jo b -  
related .

A t trial and in  the ir b rief, the defendants attacked  the jo b -  
validity o f  the exam in atio n . T h e y  claim ed : 1) that the w ritten  
exam in atio n  p laced  heavy em phasis on  in telligence and  ap ti­
tude tests, 2) th at the test item s call for m em orization  o f  u nes­
sential, detailed in form atio n  w hich can  and  is easily looked up 
by lieu tenants on  the jo b ,  3 ) that the D e p artm en t used inap p ro­
p riate m easu res o f  read ing  com p rehension , 4 ) that m an y  o f  the 
test item s are poorly  con stru cted , and  5) that the exam  does not 
ap p roxim ate the w ork b eh av ior o f  a lieu ten an t.

A n  e x a m in a tio n  o f  each  o f  the e x a m in a tio n  sections raises 
serious d ou bts as to the jo b -v a lid ity  o f  the ex a m in a tio n : T h is  
C o u r t ’ s se c tio n -b y -se ctio n  an aly sis  is rep ro d u ced  in  the 
m a rg in .81

81 1. Departmental Rules and Procedures Sections of the Written Ex­
amination.

This section of the exam is undoubtedly job-related. In order to do his 
job properly, a lieutenant must have a “ thorough knowledge” of depart­
mental organization, rules, regulations and procedures. Even here, an 
appropriate study would distinguish between the need to know certain 
fundamental rules and procedures and the need to memorize trivia which 
an actual lieutenant would simply look up in department manuals. The 
problem is that this section of the exam has never been weighed very 
heavily. In 1973, this section was 16.7% of the exam; in 1974, 22 .2% ; in 
1976, 19 .2% .a

The following chart reveals the exam’s weight over the years:

Year of L t. Weight of Department
Examination General Orders Section

1966 ..............................................  10.0%
1967 .....................................  9.8%
1969 ..............................................  16.2%
1970 .....................................
1972 ..................................... 8.5%
1973 ..............................................  16.7%
1974 .....................................  22.2%
1976 ..............................................  19.2%

( footnotes continued on next page)



170a

(footnotes continuedfrom previous page)
This table was computed by the defendants and presented in their very 

good brief to this Court. The percentages were derived by dividing the 
value of the section on General Orders and Training Information 
Bulletins by the sum of the relative value of each section of the examina­
tion times the number of items in the section. The plaintiffs have not 
challenged defendants’ mathematical computations.

2. Laws and Criminal Procedures Sections of the Examination
This section of the exam is undoubtedly also job-related — at least in 

theory. It is vital for a lieutenant to have knowledge of the laws which he 
and his men (or women) enforce and of the limitations which the law im­
poses on police practices. Lieutenants well-versed in the law are a must, 
both to guide the officers below them and to oversee the handling of a 
variety of arrest and search situations.

As defendants point out, however, the knowledge which should be tested 
for is that which is needed in emergency situations, or at least those situa­
tions where the lieutenant cannot easily look up the answer. Unfortun­
ately, the examination in 1976 and earlier tested for details which a lieute­
nant need not have memorized, but could always look up.b In addition, 
many of the questions dealt with areas of the law which only a prosecutor 
would need to know.' Dr. Barrett’s testimony illustrated this problem: 

b For example, the 1976 examination required knowing that in 
Michigan manslaughter carries a maximum sentence of 15 years, that the 
crime of burglary with explosives carries a minimum 15 year penalty, 
what are the elements of the crime of embezzlement, and whether a set of 
facts constitutes first or second degree murder. So long as an officer — or 
lieutenant — knows whether a particular set of facts is illegal activity, 
what specific crime is involved or what the possible sentence may be is not 
critical knowledge. The lieutenant could easily look up this additional in­
formation or consult with a prosecutor.

For example, the 1976 examination required knowledge that the best 
evidence rule applies to documentary evidence and of some of the excep­
tions to the hearsay rule.

Q. You are looking at the 1976 lieutenants exam?
A. Yes. Section 4, which is on page 44, has to do with criminal law 
fundamentals of criminal investigation.

Now, I will just read some of these in order: Number one is — they 
are true and false items in this section — although the United States 
Constitution is referred to as the supreme law of the land, where it is in 
conflict with the Michigan constitution, the Michigan constitution 
prevails.

(footnotes continued on next page)



171a

( footnotes continuedfrom previous page)
Now, I don’t see anything in the description of the job which says 

that the police lieutenants make decisions on that level.
Number 6 says, “ The Tenth Amendment to the United States Con­

stitution as interpreted by the United States Supreme Court governs the 
conduct of a search by a private person as well as a search by a peace 
officer.”

Now, that’s not what the lieutenant needs to know. He needs to 
know what searches can be conducted by a private person and what 
searches can be conducted by peace officers. This question doesn t get 
at that issue. It gets at a general issue, which is really not related to his 
performance on the job.

Questions of this kind that are not related to the behavior of the 
police officer. . . Some of these questions have to do with the admissi­
bility of evidence, which is the business of lawyers and judges, not of 
police lieutenants, and so forth.

3. Verbal Skills Section of the Examination
This Court has previously noted in discussing the pre-1973 Lieute­

nant’s examinations that they included verbal abilities sections which 
were not job-related and had an adverse impact on minorities. These 
were general vocabulary and word analogy aptitude tests. In 1974 and 
1976 verbal skills tests were also used, although Commander Caretti 
made valiant efforts to relate the vocabulary to police work. It is true that 
good reading and writing skills are highly desirable in a lieutenant, as are 
good oral communication skills. Unfortunately, despite Commander 
Caretti’s best efforts, the written test was inadequate to measure these 
skills/

d Apparently there exists no written test which satisfactorily measures 
reading and writing ability well enough to satisfy the uniform guidelines.

As Dr. Barrett testified at trial the verbal inventory tests used in 
1974 and 1976 were specifically prohibited by the Uniform Guidelines.

4. Intelligence and General Knowledge Sections of the Examination
A police lieutenant ideally possesess a number of important personal 

qualities: Initiative, resourcefulness, ability to lead, sensitivity, even 
temperament, common sense. These abilities go to the core of being a 
good lieutenant. Over the years the Department has tried to measure 
these abilities on its written examinations. Before 1970, various I.Q . tests 
were used. Recently, the Department has presented candidates with a 
massive bibliography of police-related source materials and has asked 
questions from these materials on the examination. The difficulty 
throughout has been that the qualities which the Department has sought

( footnotes continued on next page)



172a

In  su m , the w ritten  ex a m  is n ot jo b -re la te d . I t  h as n ot been  
v a lid ated , as req u ired  b y  the U n ifo rm  G u id elin es . A lth ou gh  
C o m m a n d e r  C a re tti tho u g h t th at the ex a m  w as jo b -re la te d , 
h e  is n ot qu alified  to  m ak e th at ju d g m e n t. O f  those w ho w ere 
q u alified , D r . W o llack , p la in tiffs ’ exp ert, w ould n ot say th a t it 
w as jo b -re la te d  w hile D r . B a rre tt , d efen d an ts’ exp ert testified  
th at the exam  cou ld  clearly  n ot m eet the v a lid ation  gu idelines. 
T h is  C o u r t ’ s rev ie w  o f  th e  e x a m in a t io n  c o n firm s  D r . 
B a r r e t t ’ s analysis.

P la in tiffs  argu e th at the C ity  ca n n o t have it b o th  w ays. It 
ca n n o t argu e th at the w ritten  e x a m in a tio n  is not jo b -re la te d

( footnotes continued from  previous page)

to measure are not amendable to testing on a written examination. It was 
in partial recognition of this fact that the Department instituted the oral 
board procedure in 1974.

In practice, the general knowledge section is clearly not job-related 
because the questions asked are not from “ that body of learned informa­
tion which is used in and is a necessary prerequisite for observable aspects 
of work behavior.” 29 C .F .R . 1607.15(c)(4). Dr. Barrett testified that 
the questions asked placed: “ a high premium on the ability to read and 
memorize material from books without any indication that this material 
is ever applied by the individual.” For example, on the 1976 lieutenant’s 
examination, there were 30 questions testing the candidate’s recall of 
material contained in a book entitled “ Supervision of Police Personnel.” ' 
In the words of Dr. Barrett:

22 questions from this same book were asked on the 1974 examination. 
I think most psychologists will agree that one does not learn how to 
supervise by reading a book and one is not a better supervisor by having 
remembered what some authority said about the supervision process. 
This part of the written examination placed a high premium on the 

ability to read and memorize that which is contained within the 
bibliographic materials. Those who are good crammers get the highest 
score. However, the best crammers are not necessarily the best 
lieutenants/

f Although Commander Caretti thought that the examination was job- 
related, he admitted that he would expect incumbent lieutenants to do 
poorly on the written examination unless they too crammed.



173a

b u t at the sam e tim e  argu e th at the b la ck  o fficers p ro m o ted  
u n d er the a ffirm ativ e  ac tio n  p ro g ram  w ere qu alified  by  v irtu e 
o f  th e ir  h av in g  a tta in ed  a  m in im u m  score on  the ex am . T h e  
reason  is th a t v irtu a lly  ev ery  b lack  o fficer w ho m ad e it on to  
the e lig ib ility  ro ste r w as p ro m o ted . A n d  the sole crite rio n  for 
m ak in g  it on to  the e lig ib ility  list w as to score above the 50th  
p ercen tile  on  the w ritten  ex a m in a tio n . T h e  p lain tiffs argu e 
th at if  the w ritten  e x a m in a tio n  is n ot jo b -re la te d , th en  th ere  is 
no assu ran ce  th at the b la ck  o fficers p ro m o ted  ou t o f  sequ ence 
are  co m p eten t since all they  h ad  to do to  get p ro m o ted  was 
score a p assin g  grad e on  the w ritten  ex am .

T h is  a rg u m en t h as m u ch  force. D efe n d an ts  p artia lly  refu te 
it by  em p h asiz in g  th a t th ere  are degrees o f  jo b -re la te d n e ss . T h is  
is u n q u estio n ab ly  tru e . A n  I .Q .  test h as very  little  relation sh ip  
to jo b  p erfo rm an ce . A n  ex a m in a tio n  w hich  tests know ledge o f  
b ib lio g rap h ic  m a teria l re la tin g  to  police w ork , such as the 
g en eral know ledge section  on  the 19 7 4  and  19 7 6  L ie u te n a n t’s 
exam  discussed  ab ov e at n .8 1 , is m u ch  m o re  jo b -re la te d . A s 
this C o u rt h as in d icated , such a test section  is n ot jo b -re la te d  
u n d er the strin g en t req u irem e n ts  o f  the U n ifo rm  G u id elin es. 
H o w e v e r, it u n d o u b te d ly  p ossesses som e  d eg re e  o f  jo b -  
related ness, esp ecially  w hen  co m p ared  to an  I .Q .  test.

D efe n d an ts  b o ls ter  th e ir  arg u m en t b y  n o tin g  th a t w hat has 
the m ost im p act in  term s o f  jo b -re la te d n e ss  is the effect o f  the 
ex a m in a tio n  on rank order. T h u s , th ey  argu e th a t the ex am  is 
su fficiently  jo b -re la te d  th a t the h igh  cu t-o ff score in su res that 
all can d id ates on  the list h ave the m in im u m  know ledge to  be 
lieu ten an ts. H ow ev er, the ex am  is n ot su fficiently  jo b -re la te d  
to d ifferen tia te  am o n g  the can d id ates w ho m ak e the list. T h is  
C o u rt is in  full ag reem en t w ith  the la tte r  p ro p osition . T h e  
fo rm er p ro p osition  is m o re  d ifficu lt. C o u rts  h ave recog nized  
that a test m ay b e valid  as a m ean s o f  re je c tin g  the basica lly  
u n q u alified  b u t n ot valid  to  d eterm in e the best qu alified  ap­
p lican ts am o n g  a larg e pool. See A s s ’n A gainst D iscrim ination v.



174a

City o f  Bridgeport, 4 5 4  F .S u p p . 751 ,  7 5 6 -5 7  (D .C o n n . 1 9 7 8 ); 
S t a m p s  v. D e t r o i t  E d i s o n ,  3 6 5  F . S u p p .  8 7 ,  1 1 8  
( E .D .M ic h .  1 9 7 3 ); 29  C .F .R .  § 1 6 0 7 .1 5 (c ) (9 ) .  F low ev er, 
th e re  is no cred ib le  ev id en ce in  the reco rd  th a t th e  ex a m  cu t­
o ff  score b y  itself, was ad eq u ate  to  insu re m in im a l q u a lifica ­
tion s for p ro m o tio n .82

T h e  d iscussion  w hich  follow s, h ow ev er, d em o n stra tes that 
the fo rm er p ro p osition  is tru e  and  th at the b lack  o fficers who 
w ere p rom oted  ou t o f  sequ en ce w ere as su b stan tia lly  equ ally  
q u alified  as the w hite officers p ro m o ted  in strict ran k  order.

B . Service Ratings

[4] P la in tiffs do not seriously  press th e ir  a rg u m en t th a t the 
w ritten  ex a m in a tio n  is jo b -re la te d  or th a t the w hite cand id ates 
p ro m o ted  w ere m o re  qu alified  th an  the b lack  can d id ates p ro ­
m oted  b ecau se the fo rm er p erfo rm ed  b e tte r  on  the w ritten  ex ­
am  th an  the la tter . In stead , the p la in tiffs c la im  th at the w hite 
o fficers w ho w ere “ passed o v e r”  for p ro m o tio n  in  fav or o f  the 
b la ck  officers w ere b e tter  qu alified  b ecau se the w hite officers 
receiv ed  sig n ifican tly  b e tte r  serv ice ra tin g s as sergean ts.

D r. W o lla ck ’s analysis d em on stra ted  th at the w hite police 
o fficers w ho w ere “ passed o v e r”  receiv ed  sig n ifican tly  h ig h er 
service ra tin g s th an  the b lack  o fficers w ho w ere p rom oted  
u n d er the affirm ativ e  actio n  p lan . D r . W o llack  also conclu ded

Although Commander Caretti testified that the written exam cut-off 
score assures that all on the eligibility list are qualified, on cross- 
examination, he modified this stance and testified that only through ap­
plication of the entire model could adequate qualification be assured. 
Thus, Commander Caretti would presumably not find qualified a can­
didate who had barely passed the written examination but who had scored 
very low on both service ratings and the oral board. However, no minority 
promotional candidate appears to have come dose to this extreme exam­
ple. Commander Caretti testified that the candidates promoted out of 
order were qualified to be lieutenants.



175a

th at the service ra tin g s w ere racia lly  n eu tra l: first, b ecau se 
there w as no co rre la tio n  b etw een  the race  o f  the o ffice r rece iv ­
ing  service ra tin g s an d  the race  o f  the m em b ers  o f  the ra tin g s 
team s, and  second ly , b ecau se  the d ifferen ces in  service ra tin g s 
w ere acco u n ta b le  b y  d ifferen ces in  ten u re  o r jo b  exp erien ce . 
O n  the 19 7 4  and  1976  lie u te n a n t’s e lig ib ility  ro ster, ap p ro x­
im ately  th re e -q u a rte rs  o f  the b lack  can d id ates h ad  less th an  3 
y ears tim e -in -g ra d e  (a s  se rg e a n ts ); a p p ro x im a te ly  th ree- 
q u arters o f  the w hite o fficers h ad  m o re  th an  3 y ears tim e -in ­
grade. C o m m a n d e r C a re tti ag reed  th at w hen  jo b  ten u re  is 
tak en  in to  acco u n t, the service ra tin g s are  racia lly  n eu tra l.

B o th  sides agree th at service ra tin g s co rre la te  w ith  jo b  ex ­
p erien ce . T h o se  p ro m o tio n a l can d id ates who w ere sergeants 
for the m ost years got the h igh est serv ice ra tin g s. T h e  p arties 
differ in  th e ir  in terp re ta tio n  o f  th is fact. P la in tiffs  arg u e that 
jo b  exp erien ce  as serg ean t is a valid  m easu re  o f  a ca n d id a te ’s 
ab ility  to su ccessfu lly  p erfo rm  the jo b  o f  lieu ten an t. S im p ly  
stated , they  cla im  th a t the w hite officers w ho got the b e tte r  ser­
vice ra tin g s w ere b e tte r  qu alified  b ecau se  they  had m ore e x ­
p erien ce . T h e y  p o in t to testim o n y  b y  C h ie f  H a rt and  fo rm er 
C h ie f  P a tr ic k  M u rp h y  th at good p erfo rm an ce  as a sergean t is 
an  essen tia l p rereq u isite  for p ro m o tio n  to  lie u te n a n t.83

83 The Fourth Circuit in F rein d  v. L eid in ger, 588 F.2d 61 (4th Cir. 1978) 
reached similar conclusions regarding service ratings given to black and 
white firemen with different experience on the job:

The lower court was not persuaded by appellant’s statistical showing 
that blacks received lower fitness ratings from their supervisors than 
whites. It was bothered by the fact that most blacks receiving such 
ratings were new recruits and were being compared with whites, who 
were experienced firemen. . .  In fire fighting, experience is very impor­
tant, and, as pointed out by the trial judge, a rookie firemen may be 
outstanding in comparison with other rookies but merely acceptable 
when measured against the job standards and an experienced fireman 
may be outstanding when measured against the job standard, but only

(footnotes continued on next page)



176a

A n  eq u ally  p lau sib le  ex p la n a tio n  for the b e tte r  service 
ra tin g s g iven  the w hite o fficers is ad v an ced  b y  the defen d an ts. 
T h e y  arg u e th at the ra ters tend  to give lo n g er-te n u red  officers 
h ig h e r  se rv ice  ra tin g s  m e re ly  b e c a u se  th e y  a re  lo n g e r- 
ten u red . D ed en d an ts em p h asize th at as a g en era l ru le , raters 
give ou t h igh  service ra tin g s to all o fficers. T h e  n atu ra l 
ten d en cy  is to give even  h ig h er service ra tin g s to the long er- 
ten u red  officers. In  effect, d efend ants c la im  th at those who 
give ou t serv ice ra tin g s are  b iased  n ot in  fav o r o f  w h ites, b u t in 
fav or o f  officers w ho w ere serg ean ts lo n g er. F o r  reasons 
ou tlin ed  in  the follow ing sectio n , this C o u rt accep ts d efen ­
d a n t’s exp lan atio n .

C. Confirm ation Service Ratings and Officer Candidate  
School Scores

T h u s  fa r, the issue o f  re la tiv e  q u a lifica tio n s is m uddled. 
T h e  b la ck  officers w ho b en efitted  from  a ffirm ativ e  action  
rece iv ed  oral b o a rd  scores co m p a ra b le  to the w hite officers

(footnotes continued from  previous page)

average when measured against his peers on the force. In using figures 
that compared firemen with the same amount of seniority the court 
found that blacks receiving “ more than acceptable” or better ratings 
was 94.5%  of the rate of whites receiving the same ratings and, 
therefore, there was no adverse impact for the group for which reliable 
and comparable statistics were available, id. at 66-67.

The Fourth Circuit may have been correct regarding rookie firemen, 
but in this case each candidate for promotion to lieutenant had served for 
years at both the patrolman and sergeant’s level. It is not obvious that 
many years of experience at the sergeant’s level necessarily make one a 
better lieutenant.



177a

w ho w ould otherw ise h ave b een  p ro m o ted . T h e  b la ck  officers 
did n ot do as w ell on  the w ritten  e x a m in a tio n , b u t th at ex am  
was c learly  n ot a p ro p er ran k in g  d evice. F in a lly , it is tru e  that 
the w hite o fficers receiv ed  su p erior service ra tin g s as sergean ts 
com p ared  w ith  the b la ck  o fficers. H ow ev er, it is n o t clear 
w h eth er this w as b ecau se  the w hite officers w ere in fact b e tter  
o r b ecau se  the ra ters  favored  officers w ith m ore ten u re .

T h e  d efin itive an sw er to  the rela tiv e  q u alifica tio n s q u estion  
is p rovid ed  b y  d efen d a n t’s analysis o f  co n firm atio n  service 
ra tin g s. A s in d icated  ab o v e , D r . W o llack , on  b e h a lf o f  the 
p la in tiffs, an alyzed  th e  ca n d id a tes’ service ra tin g s as sergeants 
and  fou nd  th a t those p ro m o ted  ou t o f  seq u en ce, u n d er the af­
firm ativ e  ac tio n  p lan , w ere sig n ifican tly  in ferio r p erfo rm ers 
th an  the w hite  can d id ates w ho w ould otherw ise have b een  
p ro m o ted . H o w ev er, D r . R o b e r t  D u g a n , an  exp ert w itness 
for the d efen d an ts, p erfo rm ed  several analyses o f  how  the af­
firm a tiv e  a c tio n  p ro m o te es w ere  ra ted  as lieutenants. A ll 
lieu ten an ts receiv e  “ co n firm a tio n ”  service ra tin g s ap p ro x­
im ately  on e y ea r  a fter  th e y  h av e served in  th at ran k . D r . 
D u g a n  ex a m in ed  the lie u te n a n t’s serv ice ra tin g s o f  “ ou t-of- 
se q u en ce”  b la ck  o fficers (in clu d in g  w om en) and “ in  se­
q u e n ce ”  w hite o fficers (in clu d in g  w om en). O ff  o f  the 1973 
elig ib ility  list, D r . D u g a n  h ad  the service ra tin g s o f  8 officers 
p rom oted  ou t o f  seq u en ce an d  2 0  o fficers p rom oted  in se­
q u en ce. H e  fou nd  no sta tistica lly  sig n ifican t d ifferen ce in  the 
m ean  scores o f  b o th  groups. O ff  o f  the 1974  lieu ten an ts 
elig ib ility  reg ister , h e  had  the service ra tin g s o f  9 officers p ro ­
m oted  ou t o f  seq u en ce an d  27 officers p ro m o ted  in  sequ en ce. 
T h e  m ean  scores o f  the tw o groups w ere not sign ifican tly  dif­
feren t. O f f  o f  the 1976  lieu ten an ts elig ib ility  reg ister, he had  
scores for 19 o fficers p ro m o ted  ou t o f  sequ en ce and  40  officers 
p rom oted  in  seq u en ce. T h e  m ean  scores o f  the tw o groups 
were not significantly different. N or is the result any different if  
one om its fem ales and com pares the rating  o f  black m ale officers



178a

prom oted out o f  sequence with w hite m ale officers prom oted in 
sequence. T h e  results are reproduced in the follow ing table:

C onfirm ation  Service R atings (M ale  O fficers)

Year Group
Number of 

Cases
Mean
Score Difference

1 9 7 3 ........... . . . O u t o f  Se q u en ce 7 8 2 .4 .4
In  Se q u en ce 20 8 2 .0

1 9 7 4 . . . . . . . . O u t o f  S e q u en ce 7 8 3 .2 2 .8
In  S e q u en ce 27 8 0 .4

1 9 7 6 . . . . . O u t o f  Se q u en ce 16 7 9 .5 3 .1
In  S e q u en ce 40 8 2 .6

T h e  d ifferen ces are  n ot sta tistica lly  sig n ifican t for an y  o f  the 
y ears  in  w hich  a ffirm ativ e-actio n  p ro m o tion s w ere m ad e.

In  ad d itio n , D r. D u g a n  con d u cted  an  an aly sis co m p arin g  
th e  tw o groups o f  o ffice rs ’ p erfo rm an ce  on  w ritten  e x a m in a ­
tion s tak en  at O ffice r  C an d id ate  Sch o o l. ( O C S ) .  A ll officers 
selected  for p ro m o tion  attend  O C S  classes for six w eeks and 
m u st successfu lly  com p lete the cou rse b efore  b e in g  assigned  to 
the ra n k  o f  lieu ten an t. E a c h  can d id ate  takes a  w ritten  test at 
the b eg in n in g  and at the end o f  O C S . D r. D u g a n  com p ared  
m ea n  scores received  on  these ex a m in a tio n s by  b la ck  officers 
p ro m o ted  ou t o f  sequ en ce w ith  scores receiv ed  b y  w hite of­
ficers p rom oted  in sequ en ce. H e fou nd no sta tistica lly  sign ifi­
ca n t d ifferen ces. T h e  follow ing tab les ou tlin e  his find ings.

O C S  T e s t  S c o re s  ( E q u a l  S a m p le  S iz e s )

Year Group
Number of 

Cases

Mean
Pre-test

Score

Mean
Post-test

Score

1973.. . . Out of Sequence n 66.73 93.27
1973.. . . In Sequence n 62.82 96.18

1973 Difference 3.95 2.91
1976.. . . Out of Sequence 22 64.82 85.17
1976.. . .  In Sequence 22 65.59 84.91



179a

M ale O C S T est Scores

Mean Mean
Number of Pre-test Post-test

Year Group Cases Score Score

1 9 7 3 ... . Out of Sequence n 67.30 93.50
1973. . .. . In Sequence 12 63.42 96.50

1973 Difference 3.88 3.00
1976. . . . Out of Sequence 20 64.30 85.80
1976.. . . In Sequence 19/49 65.48(N = 19) 85.82(N

1976 Difference 1.54 .02

P la in tiffs  a tta ck  D r. D u g a n ’ s analysis on  tw o g ro u n d s.84 
N on e o f  these a ttack s are  co n v in c in g ..F irs t, p lain tiffs p oin t to 
a n u m b e r o f  co m p u ta tio n a l e rro rs .85 A b le  cou nsel for the 
p lain tiffs ex am in ed  D r. D u g a n  in  detail co n cern in g  these e r ­
rors, b u t in  the fin al an alysis, th is C o u rt finds them, in sig n ifi­
can t an d  cred its D r. D u g a n ’s assu ran ce  that “ th ere  are  no e r ­
rors in  an y  tab le  I  h ave p resen ted  th at w ill h ave an y  sig n ifican t 
d ifferen ce in  an y  m a tte rs  b efore  this C o u r t .”

Se co n d , the p lain tiffs accu se D r. D u g a n  o f  “ sig n ifican ce 
sh o p p in g .”  A s in d icated  ab ov e, D r . D u g a n ’s com p arison  o f  
O C S  scores is b ased  on  equ al sam ple sizes. T h a t  is to say , Dr. 
D u g a n  co m p ared  O C S  scores of those p rom oted  ou t o f  se­
q u en ce  w ith a  sam ple  o f  w hite o fficers p rom oted  in  sequ ence. 
P la in tiffs c la im  th at D r . D u g a n  h an d -p ick ed  the sam ples to

84 They also attack Dr. Dugan’s analysis of the oral board scores of black 
officers promoted out of sequence and the officers ‘ ‘passed over” for pro­
motion. As indicated above, Dr. Dugan had concluded that there are no 
statistically significant difference in the mean oral board scores of the two 
groups of candidates.

85 There were some errors which Dr. Dugan caught and corrected before 
testifying. Also, an error cropped up on two exhibits. An error in addi­
tion occurred in exhibit 164-H which was carried over to exhibit 194 table 
B. The latter exhibit indicates that a total of 1172 officers sat for the 1974 
sergeants examination, of whom 852 were white. In fact there were 1173 
officers who sat, of whom 853 were white.



180a

ach iev e the desired  resu lts and  th at D r . D u g a n  should  have 
co m p ared  the scores o f  o fficers p ro m o ted  ou t o f  sequ en ce w ith 
all o fficers p ro m o ted  in  sequ en ce. T h is  C o u rt finds n o  b asis to 
these a lleg ation s. O n ly  officers w ho are  p ro m o ted  to the ran k  
o f  lieu ten a n t receiv e  O C S  scores an d  co n firm a tio n  service 
ra tin g s. T h u s , th ere  is no w ay to  d irectly  co m p are  th e  O C S  
scores an d  co n firm atio n  service ra tin g s o f  the b la ck  officers 
p ro m o ted  ou t o f  sequ en ce w ith  those o f  the w h ite  o fficers who 
w ould h ave b een  otherw ise p ro m o ted , b u t w ho w ere “ passed 
o v e r .”  In stead , D r . D u g a n  did the n ex t best th in g  an d  co m ­
p ared  the co n firm atio n  service ra tin g s o f  the b la ck  officers 
w ith  those o f  the w hite officers p ro m o ted  in  seq u en ce w ho had 
h ead ed  the elig ib ility  list. O n  d irect ex a m in a tio n , D r . D u g an  
co m p ared  eq u al sam ple sizes o f  co n firm a tio n  ra tin g s for 
m em b ers  o f  the two grou ps. F o r  1 9 7 3 , for exam p le , h e  co m ­
p ared  the co n firm atio n  ra tin g s fo r e ig h t o f  the o fficers p ro ­
m o ted  ou t o f  sequ ence and those for eight o f  the o fficers p ro ­
m o ted  in  sequ en ce. O n  cro ss-ex a m in a tio n , cou nsel fo r the 
p la in tiffs qu estioned  the m a n n e r in  w hich D r . D u g a n  chose 
h is sam p le o f  w hite o fficers. S im ila r  q u estion s w ere raised  
reg ard in g  the sam ples D r. D u g a n  selected  for 1 9 7 4  an d  1976 . 
In  resp on se, on  red irect ex a m in a tio n , D r . D u g a n  com p ared  
all co n firm atio n  service ra tin g  scores w hich  w ere av a ilab le  for 
o fficers p ro m o ted  in  seq u en ce as w ell as ou t o f  seq u en ce . As 
in d icated  above, th ere  w ere no statistica lly  sig n ifican t dif­
feren ces betw een  them .

D r. D u g an  did take even sam ple sizes in  his analysis o f  O C S  
scores. H ow ever, he testified , w ithout con trad iction , th at it was 
ap p rop riate  to do so given the sm all n u m b ers involved. M o re  
im p ortantly , there is no ind ication  that in tak in g  a  sam ple o f  the 
O C S  scores o f  w hite officers, D r. D u g a n  d eliberately  distorted 
h is results by  selecting  atypical scores for the w hite officers. 
S ig n ifican tly , the plaintiffs did not present exp ert testim ony



181a

w hich e ith er questioned  h is m ethodology or the accu racy  o f  his 

resu lts .86

D . S u m m ary
D e fe n d a n t ’ s a n a ly s is  o f  c o n f ir m a tio n  se rv ice  ra tin g s  

d em on stra tes th at the b lack  o fficers p rom oted  ou t o f  sequ en ce 
w ere as q u alified  as the w hite o fficers p ro m o ted  in  sequ en ce. 
T h is  co n clu sio n  is also su pported  by  the fact th a t b o th  groups 
receiv ed  sim ilar o ra l b o a rd  scores —  a  cru cia l in d icato r o f  
good p erfo rm a n ce  as a  lieu ten a n t, acco rd in g  to C o m m a n d e r 

C a re tti.

F in a lly , th ere  is the tria l testim o n y  o f  variou s o fficers, in ­
clu d in g  C h ie f  H a r t , th at the o fficers p ro m o ted  ou t o f  o rd er 
w ere p erfo rm in g  as w ell as lieu ten an ts as those officers p ro ­
m oted  in  o rd er. It  is tru e  th at C h ie f  H a rt  is a  stron g  p rop on en t

86 In their brief, plaintiffs point to exhibit 195 as an example of 
Dr. Dugan’s alleged data manipulation. That exhibit, however, deals 
with the completely separate question of the appropriate weight which the 
various components of the promotional model in fact had on the can­
didates’ position on the eligibility list. Dr. Dugan basically concluded 
that the written examination, which had a weight ol 50% in 1973 and 
55% in 1974 and 1976, in fact had a true weight of 82% and 84% respec­
tively. The reason is because of the effect of rank ordering. A higher writ­
ten examination score was much more important to one s ultimate rank 
on the list than anything else. The technique Dr. Dugan used to deter­
mine true weight is known as “ multiple regression.’ ’ On cross- 
examination, Dr. Dugan conceded that the result would differ depending 
on how one inserted the various promotional variables into the equation. 
Because of this concession, plaintiffs claim that improper data manipula­
tion took place. This Court disagrees. Dr. Dugan stated that the dif­
ferences would be “ slight.” On redirect examination, Dr. Dugan con­
firmed his judgment that the calculations in exhibit 195 accurately 
represented the true weight of the various components of the promotional 
model. Plaintiffs offered no countervailing testimony on this issue. In­
deed, Dr. Wollack, plaintiffs’ expert, on cross-examination conceded 
that rank ordering on the basis of a cognitive test generally maximizes the 
adverse impact on minorities who do not do well on such tests.



182a

o f  th e  a ffirm ativ e  a c tio n  p lan . H e  is also a p ro fession al police 
o fficer w ith a d istinguished  record  o f  serv ice. T h e r e  are  cu r­
ren tly  slightly m ore than  2 0 0  lieu ten an ts in  the D e tro it  P o lice  
D e p a r tm e n t  w ho h e lp  su p e rv is e  a p p r o x im a te ly  1 , 1 0 0  
sergean ts and  4 ,0 0 0  police officers. L ie u te n a n ts  hold  vital 
co m m an d  positions in the D e p a rtm e n t. I f  a ffirm ativ e  action  
resu lted  in the p ro m o tion  o f  less th an  qu alified  officers, the ef­
fect on  the D e p a rtm e n t cou ld  be severe. C h ie f  H a rt and  the 
B o a rd  o f  P o lice  C o m m issio n ers h ave every  in cen tiv e  to  p ro ­
m ote  the m ost com p eten t can d id ates, esp ecially  to the ran k  o f  
lieu ten a n t. T h u s , there is good reason  to  cred it C h ie f  H a r t ’s 
testim on y  that the officers p ro m o ted  ou t o f  o rd er w ere equally  
q u alified  and  h ave p erform ed  well.

T h e  above findings in d icate that the exam  cu t-o ff score was, 
by itself, adequate to ensure that only w ell-qualified  b lacks w ere 
p rom oted  u nder the affirm ative action  p la n .87 T h e se  findings 
also con firm  that the d ifference in the service ratings received  at 
the serg ean t’s level by the m em b er o f  each  group prom oted  can 
b e  attribu ted  solely to raters favoring  senior officers because 
they  w ere senior.

87 The Court notes once again that the black officers involved here are 
the “ survivors” who remained after a discriminatory hiring process and 
a discriminatory promotion process to sergeant. As more and more black 
officers become eligible for promotion, the exam cut-off score may 
become inadequate to assure high quality, by itself. Thus far, however, it 
appears that the written exam was sufficiently job-related to assure that 
all who passed were qualified.



183a

V I .  T H E  L E G A L  S T A N D A R D  F O R  
V O L U N T A R Y  A F F I R M A T I V E  

A C T I O N

P la in tiffs  in  th is case h ave b ro u g h t suit u n d er T it le  V I  and  
T itle  V I I  o f  the C iv il R ig h ts  A ct o f  19 6 4 , 42  U .S .C .  §§ 
2 0 0 0 d 88 and  2 0 0 0 e ;89 the p ost-civ il w ar civ il rights acts, 42 
U .S .C .  §§ 1981 ;90 1 98  3 ;91 the U n ite d  S ta tes  C o n stitu tio n ,92 as 
well as M ic h ig a n  S ta te  la w .93 A ll o f  the above provisions 
outlaw  d iscrim in a tio n  becau se o f  race .

88 Title V I provides:
No person in the United States shall, on the ground of race, color, or 

national origin, be excluded from participation in, be denied the 
benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any program or ac­
tivity receiving Federal financial assistance.

89 In relevant part, Title V II provides:
(a) it shall be unlawful employment practice for an employer —
(1) to fail or refuse to hire or to discharge any individual, or otherwise 
to discriminate against any individual with respect to his compensa­
tion, terms, conditions, or privileges of employment, because of such 
individual’s race, color, religion, sex, or national origin; or

(2) to limit, segregate, or classify his employees or applicants for 
employment in any way which would deprive or tend to deprive any 
individual of employment opportunities or otherwise adversely affect 
his status as an employee, because of such individual’s race, color, 
religion, sex or national origin.

90 § 1981 provides:
All persons within the jurisdiction of the United States shall have the 

same right in every State and Territory to make and enforce contracts, 
to sue, be parties, give evidence, and to the full and equal benefit of all 
laws and proceedings for the security of persons and property as is en­
joyed by white citizens and shall be subject to like punishment, pains, 
penalties, taxes, licenses, and exactions of every kind, and to no other.

91 § 1983 provides:
Every person who, under color of any statute, ordinance, regula­

tion, custom, or usage, of any State or Territory, subjects, or causes to
( footnotes continued on next page)



184a

I t  is u nd isp u ted  th at the C ity ’s a ffirm ativ e  a c tio n  p lan  p ro ­
m oted  officers on the b asis  o f  th e ir  race  and  th a t ab sen t a ffir­
m ativ e  ac tio n , w hite o fficers w ould h ave b een  p rom oted  
w h ere b lack  o fficers w ere in  fact p ro m o ted . B y  ch oosin g  equ al 
n u m b ers  o f  w hite and  b lack  officers acco rd in g  to th e ir  ra n k  on 
the p ro m o tion al elig ib ility  list, the D e p a rtm e n t effectively  
b y p assed  a group o f  w hite officers.

P la in tiffs c la im  th at th is w as b la ta n t d iscrim in atio n  against 
th em  as w hites w hich  is illegal u n d er the ab o v em en tio n ed  
statu tes and  the C o n stitu tio n . A  th em e w hich  they  e m b ra ce  is 
th a t there  should b e  no d ifferen ce b etw een  d iscrim in atio n  92 93

(footnotes continued from  previous page)

be subjected, any citizen of the United States or other person within 
the jurisdiction thereof to the deprivation of any rights, privileges, or 
immunities secured by the Constitution and laws, shall be liable to the 
party injured in an action at law, suit in equity, or other proper pro­
ceeding for redress.

The Bratton  plaintiffs alleged a violation of 42 U .S .C . § 1985(3) in 
their initial complaint, but dropped this claim in their amended com­
plaint. The Baker plaintiffs, however, have alleged a 1985(3) cause of 
action throughout.

§ 1985 provides that persons who conspire to deprive others of their 
civil rights are liable for resulting injuries. § 1985 is broader than § 
1983 in that it reaches some private action. See G riffin  v. Breckenridge, 
403 U .S. 88, 91 S.Ct. 1790, 29 L.Ed.2d 338 (1971). However, to the 
extent that state action is involved, as in this case, § 1983 and § 1985 
are coextensive.

92 The Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment provides 
in relevant part:

“ . . . [N]or shall any state . . . deny to any person within its jurisdic­
tion the equal protection of the laws.”

93 Plaintiffs claim a violation of Art 1, Section 2 of the Michigan Con­
stitution; the Michigan Fair Employment Practices Act, M .C .L .A . § 
423.301 et. seq., M .S.A . § 17.458(301) et. s e q the Elliot-Larson Civil 
Rights Act, M .C .L .A . § 37.2201 et. seq ., M .S.A . § 3.548(201) et. seq.



185a

ag ain st w hites and  d iscrim in atio n  ag ain st b lack s. In  a  p erfect 
w orld , p la in tiffs w ould b e  co rre ct. T h e  w orld  h as b een  far 
from  p erfect for b lack s, how ever. I t  has b een  esp ecia lly  far 
from  p erfect for b lack s in  the D e p a rtm e n t and  b lack s w ho ap ­
plied to  the D e p a rtm e n t. T h e  C ity  did  n o t act to fav or b lacks 
ou t o f  m alice  tow ard  w hites, o r  ev en  cap riciou sn ess. I t  acted  
to  fav or b lack s b ecau se  as a class, they  h ad  b een  su b ject to 
d eb ilita tin g  d iscrim in a tio n  fo r y ears on  en d . T h e  affirm ativ e  
actio n  p ro g ram  is u n q u estio n ab ly  a  rac ia l p referen ce an d  it 
u n q u estio n ab ly  im p acts ag a in st w hite o fficers. I t  is also an  ad­
m itted ly  im p erfect rem ed y  w hich  seeks to offset p ast d iscrim i­
n a tio n  u n d e rg o n e  b y  b la c k s , sp e c ifica lly  b la c k  o ffice rs . 
R e c o n c ilin g  the rig h ts o f  w hite and  b la ck  officers is n ot easy. 
W h e th e r  the C ity  acted  reaso n ab ly  w hen  it adopted  its a ffir­
m ativ e  actio n  p lan  is the p rin cip a l q u estion  for this C o u rt.

A. T he Legal Claims
[5] A s a thresh old  m a tte r , th ere  is no q u estion  that T itle  

V I I  ju r isd ic tio n a l req u irem e n ts  h av e b een  m et. T h e  p la in tiff 
class rep resen tativ es filed  tim ely  com p la in ts w ith the E q u a l 
E m p lo y m en t O p p o rtu n ity  C o m m issio n  an d  th en  b ro u g h t this 
su it, iSee 42  U .S .C .  § 2 0 0 0 e  et. seq. S im ila rly , this C o u rt has 
ju r isd ic tio n  o v er the §§ 1 9 8 1 , 1983  and 1 9 8 5 (3 )  claim s u n d er 
28  U .S .C .  § 1 3 4 3 (3 )  and ( 4 ) .94 T h e  C o u rt doubts th at it has 
ju r isd ic tio n  to h e a r  the T it le  V I  c la im s b ecau se that act lim its 
en fo rcem e n t action s such  as th is to  cases “ w here a  p rim ary  
o b jec tiv e  o f  the F ed e ra l fin an cia l assistan ce is to provide 
e m p lo y m e n t.”  42 U .S .C .  § 2 0 0 0 d -3 . In  an y  ev en t, it appears 
from  Regents o f  the University o f  C aliforn ia v. B ak ke , 4 3 8  U .S .  
2 6 5 , 98  S .C t .  2 7 3 3 , 57  L .E d .2 d  750  (1 9 7 8 )  th at T it le  V i ’s

94 This act confers jurisdiction on federal district courts to hear claims 
alleging deprivation under color of state law of any right “ secured by the 
Constitution of the United States or by any Act of Congress Providing 
for equal rights of citizens . . . ” or of rights “ under any Act of Congress 
providing for the protection of civil rights.”



186a

m an d ate  track s th a t o f  the co n stitu tio n ’s eq u a l p ro tectio n  
c lau se . See id. at 2 8 7 , 9 8  S .C t .  2 7 3 3  (op in ion  o f  P ow ell); id. at 
3 2 5 ,  9 8  S .C t .  2 7 3 3  (o p in io n  o f  B re n n a n , J . ) .  T h u s , this 
C o u r t ’ s analysis o f  the co n stitu tio n al c la im  will b e  d ispositive 
o f  an y  T it le  V I  c la im . T h e  sam e is tru e o f  the § 1983  cla im . 
T h a t  statu te m erely  p rovid es a cau se o f  actio n  in  fed eral cou rt 
for e ith er  statu tory  o r  co n stitu tio n a l v io lation s. T h u s  the § 
1983  cla im  restates the co n stitu tio n a l c la im .

[6] S im ila rly , p la in tiffs ’ T it le  V I I  c la im  shou ld  b e  regard ed  
as coexten siv e  w ith the § 1 9 8 1  c la im . A s the S u p re m e C o u rt 
n oted  in A lexander v. Gardner-Denver C o .,  4 1 5  U .S .  3 6 , 47  an d  n. 
7 , 9 4  S .C t .  1011 ,  1 0 1 9 , 39  L .E d .2 d  147 (1 9 7 4 ) , “ legislative 
e n a ctm e n ts  in [the civ il rights] a re a  h ave lo n g  ev in ced  a 
g en era l in ten t to acco rd  p arallel o r  ov erlap p in g  rem ed ies 
ag a in st d isc r im in a tio n .”  T it le  V I I  an d  § 1981 are  d istinct and  
h ave d istinct o rig in s. S e e  Joh n son  v. R a ilw a y  Express Agency, 421 
U .S .  4 5 4 , 95  S .C t .  1716 ,  4 4  L .E d .2 d  295  (1 9 7 5 ) . H ow ev er, 
“ [i]n  fash io n in g  a  su bstan tiv e b od y o f  law  u n d er § 1981 the 
cou rts  should , in  an  effort to avoid  u n d esirab le  su bstan tiv e 
law  con flicts , look  to the p rincip les o f  law  created  u n d er T itle  
V I I  for d ire c tio n .”  Patterson v. Am erican Tobacco C o . ,  5 3 5  F .2 d  
2 5 7 ,  2 7 0  (4 th  C ir . 1 9 7 6 ) q u o tin g  Waters v. W isconsin Steel 
W orkers o f  In t ’l Harvester C o .,  5 0 2  F .2 d  1 3 0 9 , 1316  (7 th  C ir . 
1 9 7 4 ). See also Joh n son  v. Ryder Truck L ines, In c . ,  5 7 5  F .2 d  471 
(4 th  C ir . 1 9 7 8 ); E E O C  v. Detroit E d ison , 515  F .2 d  3 0 1 , 3 0 9  (6 th  
C ir . 1 9 7 5 ), vacated an d  rem anded on other grounds, 431 U .S .  951 ,  
97  S .C t .  2 6 6 8 , 53  L .E d .2 d  2 6 7  (1 9 7 7 ) ; L o n g v .  F ord  M otor C o ., 
4 9 6  F , 2 d  5 0 0 , 5 0 4 - 0 6  (6 th  C ir . 1 9 7 4 ).

In  su m , p la in tiffs ’ c la im s should b e  exam in ed  in  three 
d istinct areas: 1) T it le  V I I  and  § 1981 ;  2 ) the co n stitu tio n al 
c la im , also p resen t in  the § 1983  and  T it le  V I  c la im ; 3 ) state 
law  claim s.



187a

B . T h e  T itle  V I I  and § 1981 claim
P la in tiffs  h ave co n ten d ed  th rou g h o u t that T it le  V I I  “ p ro ­

h ib its an  em p loy er from  g ran tin g  p referen tia l trea tm en t in  the 
n am e o f  affirm ativ e  ac tio n  in ord er to  co rre ct a  racia l im ­
b a la n ce  b etw een  th e  co m m u n ity  an d  the w o rk fo rce .”  P la in ­
tiffs con ced e th at a fed eral co u rt h as au th ority  u n d er T it le  V I I  
and/or § 1981 to ord er p re feren tia l h irin g  and  p ro m o tion s o f  
b lack s o r  m em b ers  o f  o th er grou ps, provided  there is a c lear 
show ing o f  p ast d iscrim in atio n  and  the cou rt finds th a t a ffir­
m ativ e  actio n  re lie f  is w arran ted . T h is  is tru e  in the S ix th  C ir ­
cu it95 as w ell as v irtu a lly  every  o th er C irc u it  w hich has co n ­

sidered  the q u e stio n .96

95 See E E O C  v. D etroit E d ison , 515 F .2d 301, 317 (6th Gir. 1975), vacated 
and remanded on other grounds, 431 U .S. 951, 97 S.Ct. 2668, 53 
L.Ed.2d267 (1977); U nited  States v. M asonry Contractors A s s ’ n o f  M em phis, 
In c ., 497 F.2d 871, 877 (6th Cir. 1974); Sim s v. Sheet M eta l W orkers, L o c a l  
6 5 , 489 F.2d 1023, 1027 (6th Cir. 1973); U nited  States v. I B E W  L o ca l 2 1 2 ,  
472 F.2d 634, 636 (6th Cir. 1973); U nited States v. I B E W  L o c a l  3 8 ,  428 
F.2d 144, 149-51 (6th Cir. 1970). B u t cf. M itch ell v. M id -C on tin en t Spring  
C o ., 583 F.2d 275 (6th Cir. 1978), cert, den ied  441 U .S. 922, 99 S.Ct. 
2030, 60 L.Ed.2d 396 (1979).

96 See, e.g., M organ  v. K errigan , 509 F.2d 599 (1st Cir. 1975); Boston  
Chapter, N A A C P v . B eecher, 504 F.2d 1017, 1026-1028 (1st Cir. 1974), cert, 
denied, 421 U .S. 910, 95 S.Ct. 1561, 43 L.Ed.2d 775 (1975); Patterson v. 
N ew sp ap er D eliverers’ U nion , 514 F.2d 767, 773-775  (2d Cir. 1975), cert, 
denied, 427 U .S. 911, 96 S.Ct. 3198, 49 L.Ed.2d 1203 (1976); R io s  v. 
Steam fitters, L o c a l  6 3 8 , 501 F.2d 622, 628-633  (2d Cir. 1974); E E O C  v. 
A .T .  & T .  C o ., 556 F.2d 167 (3d Cir. 1977), cert, den ied, 438 U .S. 915, 98 
S.Ct. 3145, 57 L.Ed.2d 1161 (1978); U nited  States v. E levator Constructors, 
L o c a l  5 , 538 F.2d 1012 (3d Cir. 1976); Patterson v. A m erican  T obacco C o ., 
535 F.2d 257, 273-275  (4th Cir. 1976), cert, den ied, 429 U .S. 920, 97 
S.Ct. 314, 50 L.Ed.2d 286 (1976); W atkin s v. Scott P aper C o ., 530 F.2d 
1159, 1194 (5th Cir. 1976), cert, den ied, 419 U .S. 861, 97 S.Ct. 163, 50

( footnotes continued on next page)



188a

P la in tiffs  c la im , how ever, th a t the a u th o rity  to im p ose a 
q u o ta  is u n iq u e  to  a cou rt —  an  em p loy er h as n o  rig ht to 
v o lu n tarily  in itia te  a ffirm ativ e  actio n . In  the a ltern ativ e , 
p la in tiffs u rge th a t race-co n scio u s a ffirm ativ e  actio n  is an  ex ­
tra o rd in a ry  rem ed y  w hich  can  on ly  b e  u sed  in u n iq u e  c ir ­
cu m stan ces . P la in tiffs  c la im  th a t for a  v a rie ty  o f  reaso n s, a ffir­
m ativ e  actio n  w as n ot w arran ted  in  this case . F in a lly , p la in ­
tiffs c la im  th at even i f  a ffirm ativ e  actio n  m ay  h ave b een  w ar­
ran ted  h ere , th ey  should not b e  v ictim ized  by  it. A t the very 
least, the C ity  should b e  req u ired  to  p ay  th em  “ fro n t p a y ” 
an d  o th er d am ges, even  i f  b lack  o fficers en d  up w ith  the p ro­
m o tio n s . E a c h  o f  these co n ten tio n s deserves carefu l analysis. 
A s this C o u rt noted  in  its o p in io n  g ran tin g  d efen d an ts’ m o ­
tio n  for p artia l su m m ary  ju d g m e n t, 483  F .S u p p . 9 1 9 ,  the 
issue o f  v o lu n tary  affirm ativ e  actio n  is d ifficu lt and  unsettled . 
F lo w ev er, the Su p rem e C o u r t ’ s recen t op in ion  in  United 
Steelworkers v. W eber, 4 4 3  U . S .  193,  9 9  S .C t .  2 7 2 1 , 6 1  L .E D .2 d  
4 8 0  (1 9 7 9 )  has done m u ch  to  resolve d ifficu lties in  this area.

(1 )  T he W eber D ecision

W e b e r  p resen ted  a situ ation  som ew hat s im ilar to  the one 
h ere . T h e  K a ise r  A lu m in u m  an d  C h e m ica l C o rp o ra tio n  
op ened  a p lan t in the tow n o f  G ra m e rcy , L o u is ia n a  in  1958 .

( footnotes continued from previous page)

L.Ed.2d 139 (1976); N A A C P  v. A llen , 493 F.2d 614 (5th Cir. 1974); M or­
row  v. C risler, 491 F.2d 1093 (5th Cir.) (en banc), cert, den ied, 419 U.S. 
895, 95 S.Ct. 173, 42 L.Ed.2d 139 (1974); U nited  States v. C ity o f  C hicago, 
549 F.2d 415 (7th Cir. 1977), cert, den ied, 434 U .S. 875, 98 S.Ct. 225, 54 
L.Ed.2d 155 (1977); Crockett v. Green, 534 F.2d 715, 718-719  (7th Cir. 
1976); U nited States v. N .L .  Industries, 479 F.2d 354, 377 (8th Cir. 1973); 
C arter v. G allagher, 452 F .2d 315, 327 (8th Cir. 1971), cert, denied, 406 U.S. 
950, 92 S.Ct. 2045, 32 L.Ed.2d 338 (1972); U nited States v. Ironw orkers, 
L o c a l  8 6 , 443 F.2d 544 (9th Cir. 1971), cert, denied, 404 U .S. 984, 92 S.Ct. 
447, 30 L.Ed.2d 367 (1971).



189a

T h e  m in o rity  p op u lation  o f  the “ p arish es”  (co u n ties) su r­
rou n d in g  the p lan t, in  the m id -1 9 7 0 s , w as 4 3 %  b lack . T h e  
w ork force in  the a re a  w as estim ated  at 3 9 %  b lack . In  the 
m id -1 9 7 0 ’ s, 1 4 . 8 %  o f  the p la n t’ s em ployees w ere b lack . T h e  
only  reason  the p la n t’ s w ork force had  ev en  th at m an y  b lacks 
w as b ecau se  K a is e r  h ad  b eg u n  an  affirm ativ e  actio n  h irin g  
p lan  in  1 9 6 9 , u n d er p ressu re  from  the fed eral g ov ern m en t to 
in crease  its m in o rity  h irin g . In  spite o f  the co m p a n y ’s efforts 
to  in crease  the ov erall n u m b e r o f  b lack  em ployees at the p lan t, 
th ere  rem ain e d  a  severe sh ortag e o f  b lack s am o n g  its skilled 
w orkers. L ess th an  2 %  o f  the cra ftsm en  at the p lan t w ere 
b lack  and  the co m p an y  sim ply cou ld  not find  skilled b lack  
cra ftsm en  w ho w an ted  to  w ork  at the p lant.

T h e  co m p an y  w as u n d er p ressu re from  the O ffice  o f  
F ed era l C o n tra c ts  C o m p lia n ce , to in crease  the n u m b er o f  
b lack  cra ftsm en  or forego lu crativ e  fed eral c o n tra c ts .97 In  ad ­
d itio n , b o th  sides, m a n a g em en t and la b o r, feared  T it le  V I I  
suits b y  b lack  w ork ers. T h e  com p an y  and  the u n io n  agreed  to 
open up new  op p ortu n ities for b lack s to b eco m e craftsm en . 
T h e y  did th is b y  estab lish in g  new  elig ib ility  cr ite r ia  for en ro ll­
m en t in  the jo b  tra in in g  p ro g ram s for skilled trad e positions. 
F o rm e rly , th ere  w as a  req u irem e n t o f  p revious cra ft e x ­
p erien ce . In  the new  a g ree m en t, the o n -th e -jo b  tra in in g  p ro ­
gram s w ere op ened  up to all w ork ers; se lection  w as based  only  
on  sen iority . T o  en su re  th a t b lack s w ould b e  inclu ded  in larg e 
n u m b ers, the co m p an y  and  the u n ion  agreed  th a t equ al 
n u m b ers o f  w hites and  b lack s w ould e n te r  the tra in in g  p ro ­
gram s. T h u s , the m ost sen io r b lack s an d  m ost sen ior w hites 
w ere e lig ib le  to  tak e p a rt, on  a 5 0 -5 0  b lack -w h ite  b asis . T h e  
a ffirm ativ e  actio n  p lan  w ould co n tin u e  u n til b lack  cra ftsm en  
in  the p lan  ap p ro x im ated  the p ercen tag e  o f  b lacks in  the local 
w ork force ( 3 9 % ) .  A  w hite w ork er w ho otherw ise w ould have

97 See W eber v. K a is e r  A lum inum  &  Chem . C o ., 563 F.2d 216, 218-19  and 
n.3 (5th Cir. 1977).



190a

b een  elig ib le for the tra in in g  p ro g ram , b u t w ho was “ b y p ass­
e d ”  by  b lack s w ith  less sen iority , b ro u g h t suit a leg in g  a v io la­
tion  o f  his T it le  V I I  rights.

T h e  d istrict co u rt agreed  w ith the p la in tiff, ad v an cin g  two 
ra tio n ales for its d ecision : 1) “ q u o ta s”  could n ev er be im p os­
ed v o lu n tarily  by  an  em p loy er, only  a cou rt h ad  su ch  pow er; 
2 ) even  if  an  em p loy er cou ld  im pose a “ q u o ta ,”  a) the facts 
did  n ot w arran t it b ecau se the p referred  (b la ck ) w ork ers w ere 
n ot them selves id en tifiab le  v ictim s o f  p ast d iscrim in atio n  and 
b ) there  w as no p ro o f o f  past d iscrim in atio n  by  the em p loyer. 
See W eber v. K a iser  A lum inum  &  Chem. C o . ,  4 1 5  F .S u p p . 761 
( E .D .L a .  1976 ).

T h e  F ifth  C ircu it a ffirm ed , bu t on ly  on  the second  grou nd 
ad v an ced  b y  the d istrict cou rt. T h e  p an el m a jo r ity  would 
allow  v o lu n tary  a ffirm ativ e ac tio n , b u t only  on  a specific 
show ing o f  past d iscrim in atio n . G e n e ra l societal d iscrim in a­
tion  was not en ou gh , n or was p ast d iscrim in atio n  against 
b lack s in  the skilled trad es enou gh . N o r w ould it su ffice if  
o th er K a ise r  p lants had  d iscrim in ated  ag ain st b lack s. I t  h ad  to 
b e  sh o w n  th a t  th e  K a is e r  G r a m e r c y  p la n t  i t s e l f  h ad  
d iscrim in ated  against b lacks in the p ast. See  W eber v. K aiser  
Alum inum  &  Chem. C o .,  563  F .2 d  216 ,  2 2 4 - 2 2 6  (5 th  C ir . 
1 9 7 7 ).

Ju d g e  W isd o m , in d issent, stated  that the m a jo rity  position  
w ould doom  all v o lu n tary  a ffirm ativ e  action  efforts b ecau se it 
w ould force an  em p loy er to prove or ad m it th at it had  engaged  
in  past d iscrim in atio n  against b lack  w orkers in ord er to ju stify  
p referen tia l trea tm en t for them . I f  a co u rt fou nd th at an 
em p loy er w ent too far w ith affirm ativ e  ac tio n , it cou ld  b e  sued 
by  w hites. I f  an  em p loyer did n ot go far en ou g h , it cou ld  be 
sued by  b lacks. Ju d g e  W isd o m  suggested  th at an  em p loy er be 
given a “ zone o f  reaso n ab len ess”  in v o lu n tarily  ad op tin g  an 
a ffirm ativ e  actio n  p lan  to en cou rag e such v o lu n tary  action .



191a

“  I f  an  a ffirm ativ e  actio n  p lan , adopted  in  a  collective b a rg a in ­
in g  a g ree m en t, is a  reaso n ab le  rem ed y  for an arg u able  v io la ­
tion  o f  T it le  V I I ,  it should  b e  u p h e ld .”  Id . at 2 3 0 . A p p ly ing  
this stan d ard , Ju d g e  W isd o m  w ould have upheld K a is e r ’s a f­
f ir m a t iv e  a c t io n  p la n . K a i s e r ’ s G r a m e r c y  p la n t  h a d  
“ a rg u a b ly ”  v io la ted  T it le  V I I  in  lig h t o f  the d isp arate  
w ork force d ata  and  in d icatio n s th at som e o f  K a is e r ’ s tra in in g  
req u irem e n ts  w ere d iscrim in ato ry  an d  not jo b -re la te d . T h e  
affirm ativ e  a c tio n  p lan  w as reaso n ab le  b ecau se  1) the p lan  was 
n eg o tia ted  b etw een  the co m p an y  and  the u n io n , 2) the p lan  
w as new  an d  created  new  rig hts an d  exp ecta tion s for w hites 
an d  b lack s a lik e , an d  3) the p lan  allow ed sig n ifican t w hite p a r­

tic ip a tio n .

T h e  S u p re m e C o u rt u pheld  the affirm ativ e  actio n  plan. 
T h e  C o u rt did n o t adopt Ju d g e  W isd o m ’s proposed  stan d ard ; 
in stead  it took  an  even b ro a d e r p osition . U n d e r  T it le  V I I ,  
th ere  exists an  “ a re a  o f  d iscre tio n ”  for “ the p rivate sector 
v o lu n tarily  to adopt affirm ativ e  actio n  p lans designed to 
e l im in a te  c o n sp ic u o u s  r a c ia l  im b a la n c e  in  tra d it io n a lly  
segregated  jo b  c a te g o rie s .”  United Steel W orkers v. W eber, 443  
U .S .  2 0 9 , 9 9  S .C t .  2 7 2 1 , 2 7 3 0 , 61 L .E d .2 d  4 8 0  (1 9 7 9 ) . T h e  
C o u rt looked  to  the im b alan ce  b etw een  the racia l com p osition  
o f  the p la n t’ s cra ft w orkers (1 .8 3  %  b lack ) an d  o f  the su rrou n ­
d in g  a re a  (3 9 %  b lack ) and  took  ju d ic ia l n o tice  o f  b la ck s ’ trad i­
tion al exclu sion  from  crafts. Id . at 2 7 2 5  and  n . l .  T h is  was 
en ou g h  to  ju s tify  v o lu n tary  affirm ativ e  actio n .

T h e  C o u rt n ext exam in ed  w hether the ch alleng ed  K a ise r  
p lan  w as a p erm issib le  o n e. T h e  C o u rt did not lay  dow n any 
stan d ard s, bu t u pheld  the p lan  b efore  it for several reason s. 
T h e  p lan  did n ot “ u n n ecessarily  tra m m e l”  the in terests o f  
w hite em p loy ees, b ecau se  it did not cau se an y  w hites to be 
d ism issed  and  did n ot abso lu tely  b a r  w hites from  ad v an ce­
m en t. In  ad d ition  the p lan  w as tem p o rary  —  it w ould end 
w hen the p la n t’ s p ercen tag e  o f  skilled b lack  cra ftsm en  ap p ro x­
im ated  the p ercen tag e  o f  b lacks in the w orkforce.



192a

2. W eber an d  the D etroit A ffirm ative Action P lan

[7] W e b e r  stands for the g en era l p ro p osition  th a t v o lu n tary  
a ffirm ativ e  actio n  is p rop er i f  it is reaso n ab le  u n d er all o f  the 
c irc u m sta n c e s .98 F u rth e r , the C o u rt, in  c re a tin g  an  “ a re a  o f 
d iscre tio n ”  fo r an  em p loy er to  co n d u ct a v o lu n tary  a ffirm a­
tiv e p ro g ram  took  a b ro ad  view . T h is  is ap p a re n t from  
M r . Ju s t ic e  B la c k m u n ’s co n cu rr in g  op in io n  w hich  exam in es 
th e  C o u r t ’ s stan d ard  and  co n trasts  it w ith the stan d ard  ad­
v anced  In  ju d g e  W isd o m ’s d issent in  the F ifth  C irc u it . Ju s t ic e  
B la c k m u n  e x p la in e d  th a t a  tra d itio n a lly  se g re g a te d  jo b  
ca teg o ry  exists “ w hen th ere  h as b een  a  societa l h isto ry  o f  p u r­
poseful exclu sion  o f  b lack s from  the jo b  ca teg o ry , resu ltin g  in 
a  p ersisten t d isp arity  betw een  the p ro p o rtio n  o f  b lack s in the 
la b o r force and the p ro p ortion  o f  b lack s am o n g  those w ho hold 
jo b s  w ith in  th at c a te g o ry .”  Id .  at 2 7 3 2 . F ie  w ent on  to  note 
th a t u n d er the C o u r t ’ s test, th e  ind iv id u al em p loy er n eed  not 
h av e d iscrim in ated  ag ain st b lack s. S o  lo n g  as the requ isite  
statistica l d isp arity  existed , th at is en ou gh . In  ad d itio n , the 
C o u r t ’ s test allow s an  em p loy er to redress p ast d iscrim in atio n  
w hich  is ou tside the scope o f  T it le  V I I ’s effective cov erage.

T h e  p lain tiffs in  this case h ave tak en  the p osition  adopted 
b y  the D istr ic t C o u rt in W eber —  th at “ q u o ta s”  are  so p er­
n iciou s th at on ly  a cou rt should b e  allow ed to  im p ose such 
re lie f  and even  th en  on ly  in  the n arrow est o f  c ircu m stan ces. 
T h e  S u p rem e C o u rt, h ow ever, re je c ted  this view . I t  has 
ch osen  to give an  em p loy er e x tra o rd in a rily  b ro ad  leew ay in 
rem ed y in g  p ast d iscrim in atio n  v ia  v o lu n tary  a ffirm ativ e  a c­
tio n . In  fact, u n d er W eber, a  p rivate em p loy er m ay  adopt an 
a ffirm ativ e  actio n  p lan  even i f  a  cou rt cou ld  n ot force h im  to 
do so.

98 J u(lge Wisdom’s opinion also stood for the genera! proposition that 
voluntary affirmative action is legal if it is reasonable. The specific stan­
dard which he advanced to test reasonableness, however, is different 
from the standard adopted by the Supreme Court.



193a

T h is  case is u n like W eber, w here the em p loy er was u nw illing 
to  a d m it p a s t d is c r im in a t io n ; th e  C ity  o f  D e tr o it  h as 
p resen ted  exten siv e  ev id en ce o f  its ow n p ast m isco n d u ct. T h is  
ev id en ce, ou tlin ed  ab ov e, goes far b eyon d  W eber’s m in im al re ­
q u irem en ts to ju s t ify  an  affirm ativ e  actio n  p ro g ram . U n d e r 
W eber, v o lu n tary  a ffirm ativ e  actio n  w ould b e  allow able on  a  
show ing o f  p ast exclu sion  o f  b lack s from  police d e p a rtm e n ts "  
and a  sta tistica l d isp arity  betw een  b lack s in  the D e p artm e n t 
and  b lack s in  the C ity  o f  D e tro it . I t  can n o t b e  qu estion ed  that 
such a show ing was m ad e h ere .

It  is indeed iron ic that the p laintiffs have vehem ently  argued 
that the p resentations o f  P olice  C hiefs T a n n ia n  and H art to the 
B o ard  o f  P o lice  C om m ission ers w ere in com plete and m islead­
ing  becau se it is im p rop er to com p are the p ercentage o f  b lack  
lieu tenants w ith the p ercentage o f  blacks in  the C ity  o f  D etro it. 
T h e  Su p rem e C o u r t’ s com p arison  o f  the percentage o f  b lack  99

99 There have been many court cases finding discrimination by police 
departments against blacks. See U nited States v. City o f  C hicago, 549 F.2d 
415 (7th Cir.), cert, den ied, 434 U .S. 875, 98 S.Ct. 225, 54 L.Ed.2d 155 
(1977); M im s v. W ilson , 514 F.2d 106 (5th Cir. 1975); A fro  A m erican  
Patrolm ens L eagu e v. D u ck , 503 F.2d 294 (6th Cir. 1974); E rie  H u m an  R e la ­
tions C om m ission  v. T u llio , 493 F.2d 371 (3d Cir. 1974); N A A C P  v. A llen , 
493 F.2d 614 (5th Cir. 1974); M orrow  v. C risler, 491 F.2d 1053 (5th Cir.) 
(en banc), cert, den ied, 419 U .S. 895, 95 S.Ct. 173, 42 L.Ed.2d 139 
(1974), B ridgeport G uardians, Inc. v. M em bers o f  Bridgeport Service C om m is­
sion , 482 F.2d 1333 (2d Cir. 1973), cert, den ied, 421 U .S. 991, 95 S.Ct. 
1997, 44 L .E d .2d 481 (1975); U nited  States v. C ity o f  B u ffa lo , 457 F.Supp. 
612 (W .D .N .Y . 1978); L eag u e o f  L a tin  A m erican C itizens v. City o f  Santa  
A n a, 410 F.Supp. 873 (C.D . Cal. 1976); O fficers f o r  Ju s t ic e  v. C iv il Services 
C om m ission , 371 F.Supp. 1328 (N .D.Cal. 1973).

In W eber, 99 S.Ct. at 2725 n. 1, the Supreme Court took judicial notice 
of exclusion of blacks from crafts on racial grounds. This Court takes 
judicial notice of similar exclusion of blacks from police departments.



194a

craftsm en  at the K a ise r  G ra m e rcy  p lant w ith the local labor 
force was very  sim ilar to  the C h ie fs ’ co m p a riso n .100

[8] P la in tiffs , in  a su p p lem en tal b r ie f, arg u e th a t a  sign ifi­
ca n t d ifferen ce b etw een  W eber and  the in stan t case is th at the 
a ffirm ativ e  actio n  p lan  in  Weber w as v o lu n tarily  n eg otiated  
b etw een  the co m p an y  and  the u n ion . T h a t  w ay, the u nion  
w as ab le  to p ro tect the rig hts o f  the p red o m in an tly  w hite 
w ork ers it rep resen ted . In  this case , the police u n ion s have 
b een  fiercely  opposed to affirm ativ e  actio n  and  w ith  one ex­
c e p tio n ,101 have fou ght it b itte rly  in  the cou rts  an d  at the 
b a rg a in in g  ta b le .102 I t  is tru e , as in d icated  above that Ju d g e

i°° T he Supreme Court compared the percentage of black craft workers 
with the percentage of blacks in the general labor market in the two coun­
ties (parishes) surrounding the plant. The labor market was 39% black 
while the general population was 43% black. Chiefs Tannian and Hart 
compared the percentage of blacks in the Department with the percent­
age of blacks in the general population of Detroit. According to the 1970 
census, 43.7%  of the City of Detroit was black. Similarly,the 1970 cen­
sus reported that 43.6%  of the relevant male labor force in Detroit in 
1970 was black (males in the work force, 18-34) with 12 or more years of 
school completed). The City of Detroit’s planning department estimates 
that Detroit’s black population has increased since then. There is no 
reason to think that the labor market has not increased correspondingly. 
As previously indicated, these figures are very close to defendants’ expert 
testimony that in 1970 the relevant labor pool was 39.5%  black. See sec­
tion III, supra.

101 The very first set of promotions in 1974 were discussed by the City 
and the police unions and approved by the Lieutenants and Sergeants 
Association. See n.5, supra.

102 Plaintiffs argue that as a matter of state law, the City has unlawfully 
refused to bargain with the union about the affirmative action plan in 
promotions. It may be that the City is required to bargain out the affirm­
ative action plan as part of the criteria for promotions. See D etroit P olice O f­

f ic e r s  A ssoc. v. City o f  D etroit, 61 Mich.App. 487, 233 N.W .2d 49 (1975). 
Whether or not the City bargained in good faith concerning affirmative 
action is of no relevance to these proceedings. That is strictly a subject of 
state law and is subject to proceedings in state court. Further, the only

( footnotes continued on next page)



195a

W isd o m , in  h is d issent in  the C o u rt o f  A p p eals case , c ited  the 
n eg o tia ted  asp ect o f  the affirm ativ e  actio n  plan  as a  sig n ifican t 
co n sid e ra tio n . H o w ev er, the S u p re m e  C o u r t sp ecifica lly  
avoided such  a  lim ita tio n  in  its op in ion . T h is  o m ission  is 
s ig n ifican t and  nu llifies w h atev er force th ere  m ay h av e b een  to 
p la in tiffs ’ a rg u m en t. In  an y  ev en t, this co u rt ca n  see no 
reason  w hy an  a ffirm ativ e  actio n  p lan  should rise o r  fall on 
w h eth er a  u n io n  agrees to  it. T h e  fact th at a  u n io n  agrees to 
such a  p lan  is a fa c to r  d e m o n stra tin g  th a t th e  p lan  is 
reaso n ab le , b u t a  u n io n ’s o b stin ate  refu sal to  agree to a ffir­
m ativ e  actio n  should n ot be d eem ed  sig n ifican t.

P la in tiffs  u rg e th at u n like the affirm ativ e  actio n  p lan  in  
Weber w h ich  created  new  op p ortu n ities fo r b o th  w hites and  
b lack s, the C ity ’s a ffirm ativ e  ac tio n  plan  destroyed the hopes 
an d  exp ecta tio n s o f  w hite officers u n d er an  estab lish ed  m erit 
system , an d  th u s, was u n reaso n ab le .

T h is  d istin ctio n  is one w hich  the p lain tiffs h ave draw n 
th rou g h o u t this litig a tio n . W h e re  an  affirm ativ e  action  p ro ­
gram  exists at th e  h irin g  level, its im p act is d iffused b ecau se it 
is n o t c lear th at an y  given m in o rity  ap p lican t w as h ired  in ­
stead  o f  an y  given  w hite ap p lican t. W h e re  an  affirm ativ e  a c ­
tion  p ro g ram  exists a t the p ro m o tion s level, how ever, the op ­
posite is tru e . W h ite  w orkers can  sp ecifically  see th a t they  
w ere passed  ov er in  favor o f  m in o rities . T h e  im p act on  id en ­
tifiab le  w hite  w orkers is thus very  d irect.

T h is  a rg u m en t has fou nd fav or in  the Seco n d  C irc u it . A s a 
resu lt, th at co u rt h as b een  h ostile to p ro m o tion al “ q u o ta s” . 
See K irk la n d  v. N ew  York Dept, o f  Correctional Services, 5 2 0  F .2 d

(footnotes continued from  previous page)

evidence in the record of refusal to bargain over affirmative action related 
to discussions between the union and Chief Tannian in 1974. It appears 
from the D PO A  case, supra  that it was unsettled in 1974 whether the City 
was required to bargain about such matters.



196a

4 2 0 , reh. en banc denied, 531 F .2 d  5 (2d  C ir . 1 9 7 5 ), cert, denied, 
4 2 9  U .S .  8 2 3 , 97  S .C t .  7 3 , 50  L .E d .2 d  8 4  (1 9 7 6 ) ; Bridgeport 
Guardians, Inc. v. Bridgeport C iv il Service C om m ., 4 8 2  F .2 d  1333 
(2 d  C ir . 1 9 7 3 ), cert, denied, 421  U .S .  9 9 1 , 95  S .C t .  1 9 9 7 , 44  
L .E d .2 d  481 (1 9 7 5 ) . See also W hite v. C arolina Paperboard C orp ., 
5 6 4  F .2 d  1073  (4 th  C ir . 1 9 7 7 ). Cf. C hancev. B oa rd  o fE x am in ers , 
5 3 4  F .2 d  993  (2d  C ir . 1 9 7 6 ), cert, denied, 431 U .S .  9 6 5 , 97
S .C t .  2 9 2 0 , 53 L .E d .2 d  1060  (1 9 7 7 )  (q u o ta  in lay-offs would 
h ave req u ired  w hite w orkers to lose th e ir  jo b s  in stead  o f  blacks 
w ho h ad  less sen iority ).

O th e r  cou rts , h ow ever, h ave n ot tak en  a ja u n d ic e d  view  to 
a ffirm ativ e  actio n  in  p ro m o tion s. See E E O C  v. A .T . &  T. C o ., 
5 5 6  F .2 d  167 (3d  C ir . 1 9 7 7 ), cert, denied, 4 3 8  U .S .  9 1 5 , 98 
S .C t .  3 1 4 5 , 57  L .E d .2 d  1161 (1 9 7 8 ) ; U nited States v. City o f  
C hicago, 549  F .2 d  415  (7 th  C ir .)  cert, denied, 4 3 4  U .S .  8 7 5 , 98 
S .C t .  2 2 5 , 54  L .E d .2 d  155 (1 9 7 7 ) ; W atkins v. Scott P aper C o., 
5 3 0  F .2 d  11 5 9 , 11 9 4  (5 th  C ir . 1 9 7 6 ); U nited States v. N . L . In ­
dustries, 4 7 9  F .2 d  3 5 4 , 377  (8 th  C ir . 1 9 7 3 ). In  Stam ps v. Detroit 
E dison , 365  F .S u p p . 8 7 , 1 2 2 - 2 3  (E .D .M ic h .  1 9 7 3 ) th is C ou rt 
o rd ered  D e tro it  E d ison  to  h ire  at a  ra tio  o f  th ree  b lack s for 
ev ery  tw o w hites and to p ro m o te  at a ra tio  o f  on e b la ck  for 
ev ery  w hite. T h e  C o u rt o f  A p p eals for the S ix th  C irc u it af­
firm ed  those ord ers. See E .E .O .C  v. D etroit E d ison , 515  F .2 d  
3 0 1 , 3 1 7  (6 th  C ir . 1 9 7 5 ).

[9] A s a threshold  m a tte r , th is C o u rt does n ot find  the 
p la in tiffs ’ au th orities p ersu asive. In  this C o u r t ’ s v iew , the dif­
feren ce  betw een  the im p act on  w hites o f  a  p ro m o tio n a l q u o ta  
as opposed to  a h irin g  q u o ta  is n ot so g reat so as to ju s tify  a 
h a rsh e r  stan d ard  o f  review . A ll a ffirm ativ e  actio n  p rogram s 
h ave an  adverse effect on  w hites and to on e ex ten t or anoth er 
upset settled  exp ecta tio n s. W h e re  p ast d iscrim in atio n  against 
b lack s has b een  show n, cou rts h ave reason ed  th at m ak in g  up 
for p ast d iscrim in atio n  ju s tifie s  u p settin g  the exp ecta tio n s o f 
w hite w orkers. See Fran ks v. B ow m an Trans. C o . , 4 2 4  U .S .  747,



197a

7 7 2 - 7 8 ,  96  S .C t .  1 2 5 1 , 47  L .E d .2 d  4 4 4  (1 9 7 6 ) ; E E O C  v. 
A .T . & T .  C o .,  5 5 6  F .2 d  167 (3d  C ir . 1 9 7 7 ), cert, denied, 4 3 8  
U .S .  9 1 5 , 9 8  S .C t .  3 1 4 5 , 57 L .E d .2 d  1161 (1 9 7 8 ) . T h is  
reaso n in g  should  b e  eq u ally  ap p licab le to a ffirm ativ e  action  at 
the h irin g  level as w ell as the p ro m o tion al level. See K irk lan d  v. 
N ew  York Dept, o f  Correctional Services, 531 F .2 d 5 ( 2 d C i r .  1 9 7 5 ) 
(M a n sfie ld , J . ,  d issen tin g  from  d enial o f  reh earin g  en  b a n c).

T h e  facts o f  W eber su pport th is p osition  and u n d erm in e  the 
view  o f  the Se co n d  C irc u it. W eber, in  rea lity , involved a p ro ­
m o tio n a l q u o ta . T h e  p la in tiff, B r ia n  W e b e r , w as passed  over 
for en try  in to a jo b  tra in in g  p ro g ram  w hich  w ould lead  to  a 
h ig h er-p ay in g  jo b  as a  skilled cra ft w orker. H e  an d  oth er 
w hite w ork ers w ho h ad  g rea ter sen iority  th an  m an y  o f  the 
b lack s accep ted  u n d er the affirm ativ e  actio n  p lan  w ere id en ­
tif ia b le  “ v ic t im s ”  o f  th e  a ff irm a tiv e  a c t io n  p la n . T h e  
S u p re m e C o u rt did n ot discuss this fact; in stead  it po in ted  ou t 
th at no  w hite w ork ers lost th e ir  jo b  and  th a t w hites as well as 
b lack s w ere allow ed access to  th e  cra ft tra in in g  p ro g ram .

[10] P la in tiffs arg u e th at the affirm ativ e  actio n  p ro g ram  in 
W eber w as new ly created  and  offered  new  ad v an cem en t op p or­
tu n ities to  b o th  w hites and  b lack s. T h is  fea tu re  o f  the p ro g ram  
w as cited  b y  Ju d g e  W isd o m  in  h is d issen tin g  op in ion  in  the 
F ifth  C irc u it . T h e  S u p rem e C o u r t, h ow ever, fa iled  to m en ­
tion  this fact in  its op in ion  w hen it assessed the reason ablen ess 
o f  the p ro g ram . F u rth e r , the fact th at the p lan  created  new  e x ­
p ecta tio n s in stead  o f  u p settin g  settled  exp ecta tio n s does not 
sig n ifican tly  a lte r  the effect on  w hite w orkers. T h e  w hite 
w orkers in  W eber w ere still b e in g  id en tifiab ly  passed ov er in 
fav or o f  less-sen ior b lack  w orkers. T h a t  is sim ilar to  w hat has 
occu rred  to the w hite police o fficers in  this case.

T h e  issue o f  relative q u alifica tio n s w as n ot p resen t in Weber 
b ecau se  b o th  the w hite and  b lack  w orkers involved w ere u n ­
skilled. H ow ev er, th at issue is p resen t in  this case and has 
b een  the su b ject o f  fierce d ispute. It  is c lear to this C o u rt, as



198a

in d icated  ab ov e, th at the b lack  officers p ro m o ted  u n d er the af­
firm ativ e  action  p lan  w ere eq u ally  qu alified  w ith the w hite o f­
ficers. M o re o v e r, ev en  i f  the w hite officers w ere slightly  m ore 
qu alified  th an  the b lack  o fficers, a ffirm ativ e  a c tio n  p ro m o ­
tion s w ould still b e  p erm issib le  given the b ro ad  d eferen ce 
Weber gives to em p loy ers. T h is  d eferen ce to the em p lo y er’ s 

ju d g m e n t is well p laced , given the slippery  n a tu re  o f  an y  ju d g ­
m en t on  relative q u a lifica tio n s .103

In  su m , for T it le  V I I  pu rposes this case is in d istin g u ish ab le  
fro m  Weber. T h e  C ity ’s a ffirm ativ e  action  p lan  w as, like the 
p lan  in  Weber, a  “ tem p o rary  m easu re  . . . n ot in ten d ed  to 
m a in ta in  racia l b a la n ce , bu t sim ply to e lim in ate  a  m an ifest 
rac ia l im b a la n c e ”  in the su pervisory  ran ks o f  the D e p a rt­
m e n t .104 T h e  ad d itional factors cited  in  Weber a re  also m et 
h ere . N o  w hite police o fficer lost his jo b  and  w hites w ere pro­
m oted  a long  w ith b lack s. Weber com pels this C o u rt to uphold 
the C ity ’s a ffirm ativ e  actio n  p lan  u n d er T it le  V I I . 105 See also 
M aehren v. City o f  Seattle, 92  W a s h .2d 4 8 0 , 5 9 9  P .2 d  1255 
(1 9 7 9 ) .

103 'W Jie n  a Court imposes an affirmative action plan on an employer, 
there exists the theoretical danger that the employer will be forced to hire 
or promote unqualified persons. In the case of a voluntary affirmative ac­
tion plan, no such danger exists since an employer will presumably be 
careful to hire or promote only qualified workers. That was true in this 
case, where the Board of Police Commissioners was careful to promote 
only blacks who had passed the written promotional examination.

104 It is true that the Board of Police Commissioners has yet to set a date 
for when the affirmative action program will end. However, it is clear 
that the Program is slated to end at some point. The reasonableness of the 
termination point is an issue discussed at the end of this opinion.

105 As previously indicated, Title V II should be construed coextensively 
with § 1981 in this case. Thus, the plan must be held lawful under § 1981 
as well. Any other holding on the § 1981 issue would allow W eber to be cir­
cumvented every time by simply filing suit under that statute instead of 
Title VII.

( footnotes continued on next page)



199a

3. T he C ity ’s Past Violation o f  T itle V II

[11] A lth ou g h  T itle  V I I  was o rig in ally  en acted  in 1964  as 
p art o f  the C iv il R ig h ts  A ct, it w as not exten d ed  to p u blic en ­
tities such as the C ity  o f  D e tro it u ntil 1972 . P la in tiffs argu e 
from  this th at i f  the C ity  o f  D e tro it  did use u nvalid ated , 
d iscrim in ato ry  tests p rio r to 19 7 2 , 106 that should be irrev elan t 
so far as T it le  V I I  is c o n c e rn e d .107 A d d itio nally , p laintiffs 
argu e th at since the C ity  w as ac tin g  in  good fa ith , throu gh  
C o m m a n d e r C a re tti , to  im p rove the h irin g  and p ro m o tion al 
m odels, it cou ld  n ot be liab le  u n d er T itle  V I I  to b lack  p la in ­
tiffs for an y  d isp arate im p act on  b lacks from  these tests for the 
years 1 9 7 2 -  1973 .

( footnotes continued from  previous page)

Plaintiffs make the interesting argument that W eber does not apply at 
all in a case such as this which arose in the public sector. The reason is 
that Title V II was not extended to public sector employers until 1972. 
Plaintiffs argue that Congress extended Title V II solely on the basis of its 
power to legislate under the Fourteenth Amendment and that thus Title 
V II as applied in the public sector should be construed coextensively with 
Title V I and the Fourteenth Amendment.

This Court fails to see the significance of plaintiffs’ argument. Title V II 
as applied to the public sector in 1972 is the same statute which the Court 
interpreted in Weber as not barring voluntary affirmative action. And, 
unlike the uncertain 1964 legislative history reviewed by the Court in 
W eber, the 1972 legislative history clearly demonstrates Congress’ approval 
of race — conscious remedies for past discrimination. See Univ. o f  C alif. 
Regents v. B ak ke , 438 U.S. 265, 353-54  n. 28, 98 S.Ct. 2733, 57 L,Ed.2d 
750 (1978) (opinion of Brennan, White, Marshall & Blackmun, J J . ) .

106 As this Court has already noted, Title V II imposes much more exact­
ing requirements on an employer than the fourteenth amendment. If  a 
hiring or promotional test or other selection device acts to screen out 
disproportionate numbers of members of a protected class, then Title V II 
requires that device to be shown to be job related. Thus one does not need 
to show intent to discriminate to establish liability under Title V II, one 
need only show disparate impact, i.e. that blacks fail more often than

( footnotes continued on next page)



200a

[12] T h e  record  is c le a r  th at the C ity  used  u n v alid ated  and 
d iscrim in a to ry  h irin g  —  and p ro m o tio n al —  tests u n til 1974 . 
I t  is eq u ally  c lear th at s ince T it le  V I I  w as m ad e ap p licab le to 
th e  C ity  in  M a rc h  o f  1 9 7 2 , the C ity  w as gu ilty  o f  d iscrim in a t­
in g  ag ain st b lack s u n d er T it le  V I I  from  th a t d ate until 
1 9 7 4 .107 108

P la in tiffs  dispute the ev id en ce o f  d isp arity  and  arg u e that if  
a n y th in g , b lack s w ere p referred  in  h ir in g  in  1972  an d  1973.

( footnotes continued from  previous page)

whites. The employer then has the burden of proving that the job selec­
tion device he is using is job-related. See e.g . D othard  v. R aw lin son , 433 
U .S . 321, 329, 97 S.Ct. 2720, 53 L.Ed.2d 786 (1977); Griggs v. D uke 
P ow er C o ., 401 U .S. 424, 91 S.Ct. 849,28 L.Ed.2d 158 (1971).

107 Plaintiffs also argue that the City did not violate any § 1981 rights of 
black employees before 1972 because § 1981 requires proof of intent to 
discriminate, like § 1983 and the constitution. Thus, according to plain­
tiffs, any § 1981 rights of Black Plaintiffs were coextensive with their con­
stitutional claim. This Court has already indicated that § 1981 and Title 
V II should be read coextensively whenever possible. However, there is 
much authority that § 1981, like § 1983 requires proof of intent to 
discriminate. See e.g. M esca ll v. Burrus, 603 F.2d 1266 (7th Cir. 1979); 
W illiam s v. D eK a lb  County, 582 F.2d 2 (5th Cir. 1978). Contra D av is  v. 
County o f  L o s  A ngeles, 566 F.2d 1334 (9th Cir. 1977), vacated as m oot, 440 
U.S. 625, 99 S.Ct. 1379, 59 L.Ed.2d 642 (1979). Since this Court has 
determined that the City’s conduct through at least 1967-68 showed in­
tentional discrimination against blacks, it is unnecessary to enter the con­
troversy. This Court will assume that § 1981 requires proof of intent to 
discriminate.

108 plaintiffs argue that Title V II, as applied to municipalities, incor­
porates the intent-to-discriminate requirement of the Constitution 
because Congress had no authority to impose Title V II ’s disparate- 
impact standard on the states. This Court rejects this argument for the 
reasons given in B la k e  v. City o f  L o s  A ngeles, 595 F .2d 1367, 1372-74 (9th 
Cir. 1979). A ccord  Scott v. City o f  A nniston , 597 F.2d 897 (5th Cir. 1979), 
petition  f o r  cert, f i l e d  47 U .S. L .W . — (1979); U nited States v. City o f  C hicago, 
573 F.2d 416, 4 2 3 -2 4  (7th Cir. 1978).



201a

T h is  C o u rt h as alread y  discussed this co n ten tio n . T h is  C o u rt 
cred its M r . F e c h te r ’s analysis fin d in g  adverse im p act again st 
b lack s in  1 9 7 2 - 7 3  and  finds it con sisten t w ith the C ity ’s u se o f  
ap titu d e tests w hich  h av e h istorica lly  d iscrim in ated  again st 
b lack s.

T h e  plaintiff's’ good fa ith  a rg u m en t is in terestin g , b u t it is 
estab lish ed  th a t good fa ith  is n ot a defense to  T it le  V I I .  See 
A lbem arle P aper Co. v. M oody, 422  U .S .  4 0 5 , 4 2 2 - 2 3 ,  95  S .C t .  
2 3 6 2 , 45  L .E d .2 d  2 8 0  (1 9 7 5 ) . T h e  fact that the C ity  was 
earn estly  w ork in g  to  o b ta in  valid ated , n o n -d iscrim in ato ry  
h irin g  tests throu g h o u t the early  1970s is no  solace to  b lack  ap­
p lican ts w ho w ere screened  ou t by  the u n v alid ated , d iscrim i­
n a to ry  tem p o ra ry  tests the D e p a rtm e n t used u ntil the fail o f  
19 7 3 . T h e  p la in tiffs ’ g ood -fa ith , tem p o rary  bu sin ess necessity  
a rg u m en t, based  on  B lake  v. City o f  L o s  Angeles, 4 3 5  F .S u p p . 55 
( C .D . C a l. 1977 ) is u n av a ilin g  for the reason s given  by  Ju d g e  
H u fsted ler in  h er  op in ion  for the N in th  C irc u it rev ersin g  
B lake. See 595  F .2 d  1 3 6 7 , 1 3 7 5 - 8 2  (9 th  C ir . 1 9 7 9 ). T h u s , 
Weber asid e, the affirm ativ e  actio n  p lan  is ju s tif ia b le  to  rem edy 
c lea r v io lation s o f  T it le  V I I  w hich  con tin u ed  in to  1972 and 
19 7 3 . T h e  effect o f  the D e p a rtm e n t’s p ro m o tio n a l m odel was 
to p erp etu ate  this and  o th er p ast d iscrim in atio n  against 
b lack s. U n d e r  these c ircu m stan ce s, the D e p a rtm e n t had  a 
c lear duty to  rem ed y  the d iscr im in a tio n .109

C . The Constitutional Claim
O n  its facts , W eber dealt only  w ith  a  p riv ate  bu sin ess. T h is  

case deals w ith  a  p u b lic  em p loy er w h ich , u n lik e  a  private 
e m p l o y e r ,  is  s u b je c t  to  t h e  c o m m a n d  o f  t h e  1 4 th  
A m e n d m e n t’s eq u a l p ro te ctio n  c la u se . A cco rd in g ly , this

109 This alone would appear to satisfy the test advanced by the majority 
opinion in the Fifth Circuit’s W eber decision.



202a

C o u rt m u st assess w h eth er the C ity ’s a ffirm ativ e  actio n  plan 
passes co n stitu tio n al m u s te r .110

[13] W h e n  a state has b een  guilty  o f  ra c ia l d iscrim in atio n , 
th e  C o n stitu tio n  co m m an d s th a t the d iscrim in a tio n  an d  any 
effects from  it b e  co rrected . A  state h as a n  a ffirm ativ e  duty to 
“ e lim in ate  the d iscrim in ato ry  effects o f  the past as well as b ar 
like d iscrim in atio n  in the fu tu re .”  L ou isian a  v. U nited States, 
3 8 0  U .S. 145 , 154 , 8 5  S .C t. 817 , 822 , 1 3  L .E d 2 d  7 0 9  (1 9 6 5 ). 
A n  illu strativ e  a re a  w here this a ffirm ativ e  du ty  com es in to 
p lay is school d eseg reg atio n . In  D ayton B d . o f  E d . v. Brinkm an, 
4 4 3  U .S .  5 2 6 , 99  S .C t .  2 9 7 1 , 61 L .E d .2 d  720  (1 9 7 9 )  an d  C ol­
umbus B d . o f  E d . v. Penick, 443  U .S .  4 4 9 , 99  S .C t .  2 9 4 1 , 61 
L .E d .2 d  6 6 6  (1 9 7 9 ) , the S u p rem e C o u rt spoke strongly  o f  the 
a ffirm ativ e  duty w hich  school b oard s h ave to  d ism an tle  school 
system s w hich  w ere segregated  in  1954  w hen B row n v. B oa rd  o f  
E ducation , 3 4 7  U .S .  4 8 3 , 74  S .C t .  6 8 6 , 9 8  L .E d .2 d  8 7 3  (1 9 5 4 ) 
w as decided . T h e  C o u rt ru led  that the ex isten ce  o f  in ten ­
tion ally  segregated  schools in  19 5 4  creates a  co n tin u in g  duty 
on  a school b oard  to erad icate  the effects o f  th at system  and 
th a t the con tin u ed  ex isten ce  o f  segregated  schools estab lish es a 
p rim a  facie  case th at the school b o ard  has failed  in  ca rry in g  
ou t th at duty. See Columbus supra, 99  S .C t .  a t 2 9 4 7 -4 9 ; Dayton, 
supra, 99  S .C t .  at 2 9 7 9 .

M assiv e  litig ation  and  con trov ersia l co u rt o rd ers have 
resu lted  b ecau se school board s h ave ch osen  to  ig n o re  th e ir  du ­
ty  an d  w ait u ntil a  cou rt forced  th em  to act. Y e t  it is c lea r that 
v o lu n tary  co m p lian ce  has alw ays b een  p referred . T h e  p u blic 
ag en cy  involved has the ‘ ‘p rim ary  resp o n sib ility ’ ’ for u nd oing  
the effects o f  past d iscrim in atio n  and  cou rts should  in terv en e 
on ly  w hen the p u blic ag en cy  shirks its resp on sib ility . See 
M illiken  v. Bradley, 433  U .S .  2 6 7 , 2 8 1 , 97  S .C t .  2 7 4 9 , 53

110 As previously indicated, this also controls the Title V I and § 1983 
claims.



203a

L .E d .2 d  745  (1 9 7 7 ) ; Swann v. Charlotte-M ecklenburg Bd. o f  
E d u c ., 4 0 2  U .S .  1, 91 S .C t .  12 6 7 , 28  L .E d .2 d  5 5 4  (1 9 7 1 ) ; 
M cD an iel v. B arresi, 4 0 2  U .S .  3 9 , 91 S .C t .  12 8 7 , 29  L .E d .2 d  
582  (1 9 7 1 ) .

T h e  valid ity  o f  race-co n scio u s rem ed ies for past d iscrim in a­
tion  w as a  cen tra l th em e o f  Univ. o f  C alif. Regents v. B akke, 438  
U .S .  2 6 5 , 9 8  S .C t .  2 7 3 3 , 57 L .E d .2 d  7 5 0 (1 9 7 8 ) .  T h e  U n iv e r­
sity o f  C a lifo rn ia  at D av is M e d ica l Sch oo l op erated  a  special 
ad m ission s p ro g ram  w hich  set aside a  fixed  n u m b er o f  p laces 
for m in o rity  stu dents. H ow ev er, the M ed ica l Sch o o l, unlike 
the d efend ants h ere , did n ot a ttem p t to ju s tify  the p ro g ram  as 
a rem ed y  for p ast unlaw ful d iscrim in atio n  and w as not itse lf 
gu ilty  o f  p ast d iscrim in atio n . F o u r  Ju s tic e s  (in  an  opin ion  
au th ored  by  Ju s t ic e  S tev en s) exp ressed  n o  view  on  the p ro ­
p riety  o f  a rem ed ia l a ffirm ativ e  ac tio n  p ro g ram , b u t found the 
U n iv e rs ity ’s p ro g ra m  v io la tiv e  o f  T it le  V I .  F o u r  o th er 
Ju s tic e s  (in  an  op in ion  au th ored  by Ju s t ic e  B re n n a n ) w ould 
have su sta in ed  the p ro g ram  as an  ap p ro p ria te  response to 
g en era l societal d iscrim in atio n  ag ain st m in o rities . M r . Ju s t ic e  
Pow ell re je c ted  the societal d iscrim in atio n  ju s tific a tio n , bu t 
w ould have allow ed the use o f  race  as a  facto r in  ad m issions in 
ord er to ach ieve d iversity  in  a stu d ent bod y. A ccord in g  to 
Ju s t ic e  P ow ell, the p ro g ram  w as in valid  b ecau se it set up a 
rig id  q u o ta  fo r  m in o rities  and  in su lated  them  from  overall 
con sid eratio n  w ith  w hites.

[14] B ak ke  stands for the p ro p osition  th at general past 
societal d iscrim in atio n  ag ain st b lack s or o th er m in o rities , by 
itself, will not ju s tify  race-co n scio u s n u m erica l p referen ces, at 
least in p ro fession al school ad m ission s. T h e  op in ion  o f  M r . 
Ju s t ic e  S tev en s expressly  d eclined  to co m m en t on  the use o f 
race  in  a rem ed ia l a ffirm ativ e  actio n  p ro g ram  designed to 
rem ed y  m ore specific  p ast d iscrim in atio n . T h e  op in ion  o f  M r . 
Ju s t ic e  B re n n a n  thou gh t th at past societal d iscrim in atio n , by 
itself, did ju s tify  n u m erica l rac ia l p referen ces; Ju s t ic e  B re n ­
n an  w ould have upheld  n u m erica l racia l p referen ces as a



204a

rem ed y  for p ast d iscrim in atio n , w h eth er ju d ic ia lly  im posed  or 
v o lu n tarily  ad opted . T h e  “ sw in g ”  o p in io n  o f  M r . Ju s t ic e  
P ow ell con ced ed  that the state  has “ a  lig itim ate  and  su b stan ­
tia l in terest in  am elio ra tin g , o r e lim in a tin g  w here feasib le , the 
d isab lin g  effects o f  id entified  d is c r im in a tio n .”  4 3 8  U .S .  at 
3 0 7 , 9 8  S .C t .  at 2 7 5 7 . Ju s t ic e  Pow ell d isting u ish ed  the school 
d eseg reg atio n  cases as in stan ces w here w rongs w ere “ w orked 
b y  sp ecific  in stan ces o f  racia l d is c r im in a tio n ,”  a  “ fa r  m ore 
fo cu sed ’ ’ goal th an  the “ am orp h ou s c o n c e p t’ ’ o f  ‘ ‘rem ed y in g  
the effects o f  ‘societal d iscrim in atio n . ’ ’ ’ id. H e  w ould approve 
a ffirm ativ e  ac tio n  on “ ju d ic ia l, leg islative o r  ad m in istrative  
fin d in g s o f  con stitu tion al o r statu tory  v io la tio n s .”  id.

T h e  op in ion  o f Ju s tic e s  B re n n a n , W h ite , M a rsh a ll and 
B la ck m u n  su m m arized  the m e a n in g  o f  th e  C o u r t ’s op in ion  in 
B akke :

“ G o v e rn m e n t m ay take race  in to  a cco u n t w hen it acts 
n o t to d em ean  or insult an y  rac ia l grou p , b u t to  rem edy 
d isad van tag es cast on  m in o rities  by  p ast rac ia l p re ju d ice , at 
le a s t w h en  a p p ro p ria te  fin d in g s h av e  b e e n  m a d e  by 
ju d ic ia l , leg islativ e, o r ad m in istra tiv e  bod ies w ith  co m ­
p eten ce  to act in  this a r e a .” 111 4 3 8  U .S .  a t 3 2 5 , 9 8  S .C t .  at 
2 7 6 6 .

111 Defendants properly point out that the opinion of Justice Stevens 
criticizes, 438 U .S. at 408 n. 1, 98 S.Ct, 2833, but Justice Powell does not 
disavow this statement.

Post-Bakke courts have realized that Bakke does not affect race- 
cdnscious action to remedy past discrimination. See M aehren  v. C ity o f  Seat­
tle, 92 W ash.2d 480, 599 P.2d 125 (1979); Firefighters Inst, f o r  R a c ia l  
E qu ality  v. City o f  St. L o u is , 588 F.2d 235, 239 (8th Cir. 1978), cert, denied, 
443 U .S. 904, 99 S.Ct. 3096, 61 L.Ed. 872 (1979); M orrow  v. D illard , 580 
F.2d 1284 (5th Cir. 1978); Liv ingston  v. E w in g , 601 F.2d 1110 (10th Cir. 
1979); M in m ck  v. C alif. D ept, o f  Corrections, 95 Cal.App.3d 506, 157 
Cal.Rptr. 260 (1st App.Dist.) (1979).

t



205a

T h e  p lain tiffs h ave ad vanced  a n u m b er o f  arg u m en ts as to 
w hy the a ffirm ativ e  a c tio n  p lan  in stitu ted  b y  the P o lice  
D e p a rtm e n t is im p erm issib le  u n d er the fo u rteen th  am en d ­
m e n t, as co n stru ed  in  B akke . P la in tiffs  co rrectly  n o te  that 
ra c ia l classifica tion s such as the on e h ere  m u st w ithstand 
“ stric t sc ru tin y ”  u n d er the C o n stitu tio n . I t  is c le a r  from  B akke  
th a t u n d o in g  the p resen t effects o f  p ast d iscrim in atio n , u nd er 
s o m e  c ir c u m s t a n c e s ,  w ith s ta n d s  s t r ic t  C o n s t i tu t io n a l  
scru tin y . T h e  q u estion  is w h eth er this case p resents such c ir ­
cu m stan ces.

1. T he B oa rd  o f  Police C om m issioners’ F indings o f  Past 
D iscrim ination

[15] I t  is u n clea r  from  M r . Ju s t ic e  P o w ell’s op in ion  w hat 
a d m in is tra tiv e  b o d y  w ou ld  b e  a p p ro p ria te  to  fin d  past 
d iscrim in atio n . In  B ak ke , the q u estion  n ev er arose becau se no 
d e fe n se  o f  p a s t  d is c r im in a t io n  w as r a is e d . H o w e v e r , 
M r . Ju s t ic e  Pow ell fav orab ly  cited , inter alia, United J e w is h  
O rganizations v. Carey, 4 3 0  U .S .  144 , 97  S .C t .  9 9 6 , 51 L .E d ,2 d  
2 2 9  (1 9 7 7 ) ; L a u  v. N ichols, 4 1 4  U .S .  5 6 3 , 9 4  S .C t .  7 8 6 , 39  
L .E d .2 d  1 (1 9 7 4 ) ; M cD an iel v. B arresi, 4 0 2  U .S .  3 9 , 91 S .C t .  
1 2 8 7 , 28  L . E d . 2d  5 8 2  (1 9 7 1 ) ; Contractors Assoc, o f  Eastern Pa. v, 
S ec ’y  o f  L ab or , 441 F .2 d  159 (3d  C ir .) ,  cert, denied, 4 0 4  U .S .  
8 5 4 , 92  S .C t .  9 8 , 30  L .E d .2 d  95  (1 9 7 1 ) . In  U nited J e w is h  
Organizations, supra, the D e p a rtm e n t o f  Ju s t ic e  o b jec ted  u nd er 
§5 o f  the V o tin g  R ig h ts  A ct to  the d raw ing  o f  ce rta in  v oting  
d istrict b ou n d aries b ecau se  they  d ilu ted  b lack  v otin g  strength . 
T h e  b o u n d aries w ere red raw n , b u t the resu lt w as d ilu tion  o f 
the v o tin g  stren g th  o f  o rth od ox  Je w s . T h e  C o u rt su stained  the 
red raw n  b o u n d aries. In  L a u  v. N ichols, 4 1 4  U .S .  5 6 3 , 9 4  S . t i t .  
7 8 6 , 39  L .E d .2 d  1 (1 9 7 9 ) , the re lev an t ag en cy  w as the D e p a rt­
m en t o f  H e a lth , E d u ca tio n  an d  W e lfa re  w hich  had p ro ­
m u lg a te d  r e g u la t io n s  r e q u ir in g  re m e d ia l in s tru c tio n  to 
c h ild re li o f  fo re ig n  a n c e s try  w ho sp oke no E n g lish . In



206a

M cD an iel v. Barressi, supra, a  school b o ard  a ttem p ted  to v o lu n ­
tarily  d isestablish  its dual school system , a lb eit u n d er pressu re 
from  the D e p a rtm e n t o f  H e a lth , E d u ca tio n  and  W e lfa re . T h e  
G e o rg ia  S u p re m e  C o u r t stru ck  dow n the b o a r d ’s ra c e ­
con scio u s assign in g  o f  stu dents. T h e  U n ite d  S ta tes  S u p rem e 
C o u rt reversed , u p h old in g  the b o a rd ’s v o lu n tary  efforts.

In  Contractor’s A s s ’n, supra, the T h ir d  C irc u it  u pheld  the 
S e cre ta ry  o f  L a b o r ’s estab lish m en t p u rsu an t to execu tiv e 
o rd e r 1 1 2 4 6 , o f  goals fo r m in o rity  h irin g  b y  co n tra cto rs  in  the 
P h ilad elp h ia  a rea . T h e  S e cre ta ry  had d eterm in ed  th at there 
w as a  n eed  for su ch  a rem ed y  b ecau se  o f  the severe u n d er­
rep resen ta tio n  o f  b lacks in  the cra ft trad es in  the P h ilad elp h ia  
a re a . T h e  S e cre ta ry  ascribed  this u n d errep resen ta tio n  to e x ­
c lu sio n ary  u nion  p ra c tic e s .112

It  is c lear from  the above au th orities  that Ju s t ic e  P ow ell’s 
co n cern  was d irected  to the re liab ility  o f  the fin d in g  o f  past 
d iscrim in atio n  and to the n a tu re  o f  the fin d in g  o f  past 
d iscrim in atio n . In  each  o f the ab ov e cases th e re  was good 
reason  to cred it the find ings o f  specific p ast d iscrim in atio n  
m ad e by  each  ad m in istrative  body in  q u estion .

P la in tiffs  argu e that C h iefs T a n n ia n  and  H a rt  m isrep re ­
sen ted  to the B o ard  o f  P o lice  C o m m issio n ers  the need  fo r the 
50/50 b lack -w h ite  p ro m o tion  ra tio n  as b e in g  m an d ated  by  the 
L aw  E n fo rcem en t A ssistan ce A d m in istra tio n  (L E A A ); that 
the C h iefs w ithheld the ex isten ce  o f  the 50/50 ra tio  from  the 
L E A A  and that the B o a rd  acted  im p rop erly  in refu sin g  to in ­
v estig ate  fu rth er, call ad d itional w itnesses and take testim on y  
u n d er oath .

112 Other Courts have upheld preferential hiring under the executive 
order, e.g . Contractors o f  M assachusetts, Inc. v. A ltshuler, 490 F.2d 9 (1st Cir. 
1973), cewrt. den ied , 416 U .S. 957, 94 S.Ct. 1971,40 L .Ed.2d307 (1974); 
Southern Illin o is  B u ilders A s s ’n v. O gilvie, 471 F.2d 680 (7th Cir. 1972).



207a

T h is  co u rt sees n ot b asis to  these cla im s. T h e  L E A A  
gu id elines d isting u ish  b etw een  im p erm issib le  racia l qu otas to 
redress m ere  ra c ia l im b a la n ce  and  su ch  qu otas to  offset past 
d iscrim in atio n . In d e ed , 28  C .F .R .  § 4 2 ,2 0 3 ( i ) ( L )  provides 
th at w here a “ recip ien t has p reviously  d iscrim in ated  again st 
person s on  the g rou n d  o f  ra ce  [or] co lor . . ., the rec ip ien t 
m u st take a ffirm ativ e  actio n  to ov ercom e the effects o f  p rior 
d is c r im in a tio n .”  T h e  E q u a l E m p lo y m en t O p p o rtu n ity  C o o r­
d in a tin g  C o u n c il has adopted  a p olicy  sta tem en t to the sam e 
effect. See 41 F e d .R e g . 3 8 8 1 4  (S e p t. 13 , 1 9 7 6 ). In  ad d ition , 
the E q u a l E m p lo y m en t O p p o rtu n ity  C o m m issio n  has issued 
b ro ad  gu id elines w hich  strongly  en co u rag e  v o lu n tary  a ffir­
m ativ e  actio n  p u rsu an t to  se lf-a sse ssm en t.113

It  is tru e  th a t C h iefs  T a n n ia n  an d  H a r t  u rged  the B o a rd  to 
adopt a ffirm ativ e  actio n  to avoid  the possib le loss o f  federal 
fund s, b u t at no tim e did they  rep resen t th at a  fund  cu t-o ff was 
im m in e n t . F u r th e r , c o n tr a r y  to  p la in t i f f ’ s c la im s , th e  
testim o n y  o f  g ov ern m en t an aly st Ja c q u e lin e  D e Y o u n g  o f  the

113 See 29 C .F .R . §1608. Under these guidelines, employers are en­
couraged to conduct a self-assessment and take voluntary affirmative ac­
tion, including goals and timetables. Such action may be taken where an 
employer reasonably believes it necessary to correct the effects of past 
discrimination or past disparate treatment of minorities. An employer 
does not have to openly admit past discrimination, does not have to 
establish a past title V II violation and may take affirmative action 
without regard for affirmative defenses (such as statutes of limitations) 
which might bar relief from a court.

While conceding that ordinarily EEOC guidelines are “ entitled to 
great deference,” A lbem arle P aper Co. v. M oody , 422 U .S. 405, 431, 95 
S.Ct. 2362, 45 L.Ed.2d 280 (1975), plaintiffs argue that these guidelines 
are not, basically because they were hastily brought out in response to the 
Fifth Circuits decision in W eber. See G eneral E lectric v. G ilbert, 429 U .S. 
125, 142, 97, S .C T . 401, 50 L.Ed.2d 343 (1976). Whatever force there 
may have been to this argument is gone after the Supreme Court’s deci­
sion in W eber.



208a

D e p a rtm e n t’s special p ro jec ts  section  d em o n stra tes th a t the 
L E A A  knew  o f  the a ffirm ativ e  a c tio n  p ro g ram  and  how  it 
fu n ctio n ed .

I t  is c lea r th at the B o a rd  o f  P o lice  C o m m issio n ers  w as well 
aw are o f  en ou gh  relev an t facts to m ak e th e  fin d in gs th a t it 
m ad e. T h e  sta tistica l ev id ence o f  d isp arity  w as b efo re  the 
B o a rd  —  ev id ence th a t, co n tra ry  to p la in ti f fs  c la im , was 
h ig h ly  p ro bativ e  o f  past d iscrim in atio n . F u rth e r , the issues 
w ere fully a ired  at p u blic  h earin g s. T h e  sad h isto ry  o f  the 
D e tro it  P o lice  D e p a rtm e n t w hich  is ou tlin ed  in  th is op in ion  is 
n o t a  secret. T h e  B o a rd  o f  P o lice  C o m m iss io n ers , w hose 
m em b ers are  all resid ents o f  D e tro it , w as w ell aw are o f  the 
D e p a rtm e n t’s past and o f  the D e p a rtm e n t’s re la tion sh ip  with 
the b lack  co m m u n ity . O n e  need  only  ex a m in e  the R e p o rt  o f 
th e  N atio n a l A dvisory  C o m m issio n  on  C iv il D iso rd ers and 
the T a s k  F o rce  on  the P o lice  R e p o rt  o f  the P re s id e n t’s C o m ­
m issio n  on  L aw  E n fo rcem en t and  A d m in istra tio n  o f  Ju s t ic e  to 
rea lize  th a t in ten tio n a l d iscrim in atio n  in  the h irin g  o f  police 
o fficers and  w ith in  police d ep artm en ts w as a p ro b lem  n a tio n ­
w ide and  in  D e tro it  in  1 9 6 7 -1 9 6 8 . T h e re  w as good reaso n  for 
the B o a rd  to  cred it C h iefs  T a n n ia n  and  H a r t ’ s testim o n y  that 
d iscrim in ato ry  effects w ere still p resen t. T h e  B o a rd  o f  Police 
C o m m iss io n e rs ’ fin d in g  th at it had an  a ffirm ativ e  duty to 
rem ed y  y ears o f  pervasive d iscrim in atio n  ag a in st b lack s was 
n ot only  reaso n ab le , b u t lo n g  o v e rd u e .114

n i  Plaintiffs argue that the Board of Police Commissioner’s actions were 
premised on a showing of past “ de facto” discrimination which is insuffi­
cient to establish a constitutional violation. The phrase “ de facto” as op­
posed to “ de ju re” is not significant. Commissioner Littlejohn believed 
that past discrimination against blacks had been intentional and the 
Board of Police Commissioner’s affirmative action resolutions spoke of 
undoing constitutional violations.



209a

[16] B eca u se  the S u p rem e C o u rt h as spoken so strongly  o f 
the need  for v o lu n tary  efforts to e lim in ate  the b lig h t o f  past 
d iscrim in a tio n , it is th is C o u r t ’s v iew  th at W eber should apply 
w ith  full force to  em p loy ers in  the p u blic  sector. In  o th er 
w ords, a v o lu n tary  affirm ativ e  actio n  p lan  w hich passes m u s­
te r  u n d er Weber should also pass m u ster u nd er the C o n stitu ­
tio n . W eber’s  factors o f  rac ia l im b alan ce  an d  trad itio nally  
seg reg ated  jo b  ca teg o ries  p rovid e a sound b asis  fo r an  
em p lo y er to act and  for a  rev iew in g  C o u rt to ju d g e  the n eces­
sity o f  a ffirm ativ e  actio n . A  p u blic  em p loy er w hich co n te m ­
plates v o lu n tary  affirm ativ e  actio n  faces th e  sam e d ilem m a 
w hich  a  p riv a te  em p lo y er faced  b efore  W eber: r isk  o f  suit by 
one side or the o th er no m a tte r  w hat it does. T h e  sam e zone o f 
r e a s o n a b le n e s s  sh o u ld  a p p ly . M o r e o v e r , as th e  sch o o l 
d eseg reg atio n  cases d em o n stra te , lin g erin g  effects o f  p ast in ­
ten tio n a l d iscrim in atio n  c a n  h au n t a p u blic  em p loy er m an y 
y ears a fter the in ten tio n a l d iscrim in atio n  h as end ed . A  find ing 
by  a p u blic  em p loy er th at rac ia l im b a la n ce  exists in  a  tra d i­
tion ally  segregated  jo b  ca teg ory  should  be eq u ated  w ith a fin d ­
in g  th a t the em p loy er h ad  failed  in his duty ot rem ed y  the p re ­
sent effects o f  p ast d iscrim in atio n . T h is  im p licit o r  exp licit 
fin d in g  o f  p ast d iscrim in atio n  w ould h ave the d irectn ess and 
re liab ility  w hich  M r . Ju s t ic e  Pow ell, in B akke , referred  to 
w hen he spoke o f  “ d isab lin g  effects o f  id entified  d iscrim in a ­
t io n .”  4 3 8  U .S .  at 3 0 7 , 98  S .C t .  a t 2 7 5 7 - 5 8  an d  “ ju d ic ia l, 
leg isla tiv e , o r ad m in istra tiv e  find ings o f  co n stitu tio n a l or 
sta tu tory  v io la tio n s .”  Id . w hich  in  h is eyes w ould ju s tify  a 
p re fe re n c e .

[17] W h e th e r  th is view  is accep ted  or n o t, this C o u rt 
b elieves, on  the facts o f  this case , th a t the B o a rd  o f  Police 
C o m m iss io n e rs ’ find ings w ere ad eq u ate  to su stain  som e form  
o f  affirm ativ e  actio n  relief. T h e  correctn ess o f  th e ir  conclu sion  
is su pported  by the record  in  this case , w hich  dem on strates 
b eyon d  d ou bt th at a ffirm ativ e  actio n  w as req u ired  to undo the 
p resent effects o f  y ears o f  system ic d iscrim in atio n .



210a

2. Intentional Past D iscrim ination

[18] P la in tiffs  arg u e th a t at w orst the reco rd  show s som e 
segregated  squ ad  cars and d iscrim in ato ry  jo b  assig n m en ts up 
th rou g h  the early  1960s, b u t th a t no in ten tio n a l d iscrim in a ­
tio n  existed  in  h irin g  o r p ro m o tio n s .115 A t w orst p laintiffs 
a rg u e , b lack s w ere kep t ou t o f  the D e p a rtm e n t by facially  
n eu tra l I .Q .  tests w hich  b lacks failed  m o re  o ften  th an  w hites.

T h e  p lain tiffs draw  this d istin ctio n  b ecau se  u n d er the 
S u p re m e C o u r t ’s decision  in  W ashington v. D avis, 4 2 6 , U .S .  
2 9 9 , 9 6  S .C t .  2 0 4 0 , 4 8  L .E d .2 d  5 9 7  ( 1 9 7 6 ) ,  p ro o f  o f  
d iscrim in ato ry  in ten t is req u ired  to estab lish  a v io la tion  o f  the 
eq u a l p ro tectio n  c lau se . P la in tiffs  arg u e th at th e re  is no p ro o f 
in  the reco rd  from  w hich the B o ard  o f  P o lice  C o m m issio n ers 
or an y on e else could  h ave con clu d ed  th at the C ity  in ten tio n a l­
ly  d iscrim in ated  ag ain st b lack s. P la in tiffs  con clu d e th a t since 
at w orse the C ity  used facia lly  n eu tra l tests w hich  b lack s h a p ­
p en ed  to fail a lo t, the C ity  w as n ev er gu ilty  o f  v io la tin g  the

115 Plaintiffs argue that the lieutenant’s promotional system was and is a 
bona-fide merit system, protected under §703(h) of Title V II. They 
argue that just as seniority systems which are bona-fide are protected by 
§703, even if they perpetuate the effects of past discrimination, so should 
a bona-fide merit system be protected.

In I n t ’s B rotherhood o f  Team sters v. U nited States, 431 U .S. 324, 97 S.Ct. 
1843, 52 L.Ed.2d 396 (1977), the Court did rule that bona-fide seniority 
systems are immune from attack under Title V II. That ruling, however, 
applied only to seniority systems and not to anything else. In fact, the 
Court in Team sters, noted the anomaly of its holding, but felt compelled to 
so rule by the express language of §703(h). See 431 U .S. at 349 - 5 0 ,  97 
S.C t. 1843.

It is clear that promotional or merit systems which perpetuate past dis­
crimination are violations of Title V II. See U nited  States v. Trucking  
Em ployees, In c ., 182 U .S.A pp.D .C. 315, 321, 561 F.2d 313, 319 (D.C. 
Cir. 1977); C havez v. T em ple H ig h  School D ist. N o. 2 1 3 , 565 F.2d 1087, 
1093 n. 8 (9th Cir. 1977).



211a

C o n stitu tio n  reg ard in g  b lack  o fficers and  thus w as n ev er 
u n d er a  duty to  rem ed y  its p ast d iscrim in atio n .

P la in tiffs  o v erstate  the stan d ard  o f  Washington v. D avis, 
supra. A s the C o u rt stated  in  Arlington H eights v. M etropolitan  
H ousing C orp., 4 2 9  U .S .  2 5 2 , 2 6 6 , 97 S .C t .  5 5 5 , 5 6 4 , 50  
L .E d .2 d  4 5 0  (1 9 7 7 ) , “ D e te rm in in g  w h eth er invidious d is­
crim in a to ry  pu rpose was a m o tiv a tin g  factor dem and s a sen ­
sitive in q u iry  in to  such c ircu m sta n tia l and  d irect ev id ence o f 
in ten t as m ay  be a v a ila b le .”  In  th is case , the evidence shows 
in ten tio n a l d iscrim in atio n  ag ain st b lack s th rou g h  at least 
1967  -  1 9 6 8 , w hen th e  D e tro it  R io t  cau sed  people to sit up and 
tak e n o tice .

F irs t, th e  D e p a rtm e n t used su b jectiv e  cr ite r ia  in h irin g  such 
as o ra l b oard s and b ack g ro u n d  ch ecks w hich  exclu d ed  large 
n u m b ers o f  b lack s. T h e  record  is c lear th at th is su b jective  
d e c is io n m a k in g  o p e ra te d  to  d e l ib e r a te ly  e x c lu d e  la rg e  
n u m b ers  o f  b lack s.

S e co n d , the D e p a rtm e n t used I .Q .  tests for y ears on  end 
w hich  it knew  had  n o th in g  to  do w ith w h eth er an  ap p lican t 
w ould m ake a good police o fficer bu t w hich  screened  ou t larg e 
n u m b ers  o f  b la ck  ap p lican ts. P la in tiffs  acknow ledge th at this 
m ay  h av e o ccu rred , bu t argu e th at use o f  n eu tra l tests w hich 
b lack s h ap p en  to fa il d isp rop o rtion ately  is n ot in ten tio n a l 
d iscrim in atio n  u nd er W ashington v. D avis, supra. T h is  C o u rt 
d isagrees. It  is estab lish ed  in  the S ix th  C ircu it th a t one in tend s 
the n a tu ra l and  foreseeab le con seq u en ces o f  o n e ’s action s and  
w here the n a tu ra l and foreseeab le results are d iscrim in ato ry , a 
p resu m p tion  o f  d iscrim in ato ry  in ten t arises. Oliver v. M ichigan  
State B oard  o f  Education , 5 0 8  F .2 d  178 , 182 (6 th  C ir . 1 9 7 4 ), cert, 
denied, 421 U .S .  9 6 3 , 95  S .C t .  1 9 5 0 , 4 4  L .E d .2 d  4 4 9  (1 9 7 5 ), 
reaffirm ed in N A A C P  v. L an sin g  B oard  o f  Education , 5 5 9  F ,2 d  
1042  (6 th  C ir .) ,  cert, denied, 4 3 4  U .S .  9 9 7 , 98  S .C t .  6 3 5 , 54  
L .E d .2 d  491 (1 9 7 7 ) . A ccord Arthur v. N yquist, 573  F .2 d  134, 
142 - 4 3  (2d  C ir .) ,  cert, denied, 4 3 9  U .S .  8 6 0 , 9 9  S .C t .  179 , 58



212a

L .E d .2 d  169 (1 9 7 8 ) ; U nited States v. School D ist. o f  O m aha, 565 
F .2 d  127 (8 th  G ir .)  (en  b a n c ), cert, denied, 4 3 4  U .S .  10 6 5 , 98  
S .C t .  1 2 4 0 , 55 L .E d .2 d  765  (1 9 7 7 ) .

In  th e  recen t Columbus and  Dayton  cases , th e  S u p re m e C o u rt 
did  n ot ap prove the above test in so far as it crea ted  a  p resu m p ­
tio n  o f  in ten tio n a l d iscrim in atio n . Dayton, supra 99  S .C t .  at 
2 9 7 8  n . 9 . H ow ev er, the C o u rt m ad e it c lea r th at “ p ro o f o f  
fo re se e a b le  c o n se q u e n c e s  is o n e  ty p e  o f  q u ite  re le v a n t 
ev id en ce o f  racia lly  d iscrim in ato ry  p u rp ose . . . ”  id. F u rth er , 
th e  C o u rt allow ed the fin d er o f  fact to draw  an  in feren ce o f 
seg reg ativ e in ten t from  acts w hich  are  foreseeab ly  d iscrim in a ­
to ry , Columbus, supra , 99  S .C t .  a t 2 9 5 0 . S u ch  an  in feren ce is 
in escap ab le  h ere  w here the D e p a rtm e n t co n tin u ed  its I.Q .. 
tests for years an d  w as co n ten t to  h ire  m in u scu le  n u m b ers  o f 
b la ck  o fficers. F u rth e r , the ev id ence in  the reco rd  o f  b la tan tly  
d iscrim in a to ry  trea tm en t o f  b lack  c itizen s —  w inked at by the 
D e p a rtm e n t —  as well as b la ta n t d iscrim in atio n  ag ain st b lack  
o fficers in  th e  D e p a rtm e n t provides ad d itional com p elling  
ev id en ce th a t the D e p a rtm e n t w as d elib erately  keep in g  b lacks 
o u t. T h is  factu a l s itu ation  d isting u ishes U nited States v. City o f  
C hicago, 5 4 9  F .2 d  4 1 5 , 4 3 5  (7 th  C ir .)  cert, denied, 4 3 4  U .S .  8 7 5 , 
9 8  S .C t .  2 2 5 , 54  L .E d .2 d  155 (1 9 7 7 ) , relied  on by p laintiffs.

F in a lly , th e re  is th e  co m p ellin g  statistica l ev id en ce. T h e  
S u p re m e C o u rt had  ru led  th a t “ sig n ifican t p r o o f”  o f  in ten ­
tio n a l d iscrim in atio n  can  be fou nd in  sta tistica l com p arison s 
o f  w ork force and  p op u lation  d ata . I n t ’l  Brotherhood o f  Teamsters 
v. U nited States, 431 U .S .  3 2 4 , 337  n . 17, 3 3 9  - 4 0 ,  n . 2 0 , 97 
S .C t .  1 8 4 3 , 52  L .E d .2 d  3 9 6  (1 9 7 7 ) . T h is  C o u rt has outlined 
th e  sta tistica lly  sig n ifican t em p loy m en t d ata  in  th is case . It 
well d em on strates the severity  o f  the d iscrim in atio n  u n d er­
gone by  b lack s. See also M aehren v. City o f  Seattle, 92 W ash . 2d 
4 8 0 , 5 9 9  P .2 d  1255 (1 9 7 9 ).



213a

3. Summary

In  su m , th is C o u rt believes th a t W eber’s a llow ance o f  v o lu n ­
ta ry  affirm ativ e  actio n  by  private em p loyers su b ject to T itle  
V I I  should b e  exten d ed  to  p u b lic  em p loyers su b ject to T itle  
V I I  and  the C o n stitu tio n . I f  an y th in g , the policy  argu m en ts 
a re  m o re  com p ellin g  to allow  such affirm ativ e  action  by  p u blic 
em p loyers th an  p rivate  ones.

T h e r e  w ere c le a r  find ings b y  a  duly con stitu ted  p u blic 
b od y , the B o a rd  o f  P o lice  C o m m issio n ers , that a ffirm ativ e a c ­
tio n  w as n eed ed  to  offset the p resen t effects o f  p ast d iscrim in a­
tio n . T h e  ev id en ce in  th e  reco rd  overw h elm in gly  supports 

these find ings.

4. W as the C ity ’s A ffirm ative Action P lan R easonable?

[19] T h e  W eber analysis applied  to the q u estion  o f  w hether 
a rem ed ia l p ro g ram  o f  racia l p referen ce is w arran ted  should 
also b e  applied  to d eterm in e  the reaso n ab len ess o f  the p ro ­
g ram  in stitu ted . A  d irect com p arison  o f  W eber ’s facts w ith the 
facts o f  th is case , supra, d em on strates the reason ablen ess o f  the 
C ity ’s p ro g ram  h ere .

In  ad d ition  to the standards set ou t in  W eber, reason ablen ess 
stand ard s are provided by  Ju s t ic e  B r e n n a n ’s op in ion  in B akke. 
“  . . . w h eth er the . . . p ro g ram  stigm atizes an y  d iscrete  group 
or ind iv id u al and  w h eth er race  is reaso n ab ly  used in light o f  
the p ro g ra m ’s o b jectiv es . . . ”  4 3 8  U .S .  at 373  - 7 4 ,  98  S .C t .  
a t 2 7 9 1 .

It  is tru e  th at id entified  w hites w ere passed  over by the a ffir­
m ativ e actio n  p lan . T h a t , h ow ev er, is not “ stig m atiz in g ”  in 
the sense th at Ju s t ic e  B re n n a n  used th a t w ord in  B akke. See 4 3 8  
U .S .  a t 374  - 7 6 ,  98  S .C t .  2 7 3 3 . T h e  w hite officers w ere not 
stam p ed  in ferio r; ra th e r  the b lack  officers w ere com p en sated  
for the p ast d iscrim in atio n  they  h ad  u nd erg on e.



214a

T h e  p lain tiffs m ak e m a n y  arg u m en ts  for w hy the C ity ’s a f­
firm ativ e  actio n  plan  was u n re aso n ab le . A  key th em e w hich 
ru n s th rou g h  all o f  the p la in tiffs ’ a rg u m en ts is th at the C ity ’s 
A ffirm ativ e  A ctio n  P lan  does not help id entified  b lack  v ictim s 
o f  past d iscrim in atio n , b u t m erely  helps b lack s w ho h ap p en ed  
to  b e  on the p ro m o tion al elig ib ility  lists.

[20] A s ju s t ic e  B r e n n a n ’s o p in io n , in B a k k e n oted , F ran ks v. 
B ow m an  Transportation C o., 4 2 4  U .S .  7 4 7 , 96  S .C t .  1 2 5 1 , 47 
L .E d .2 d  4 4 4  (1 9 7 6 )  and  Teamsters v. U nited States, 431 U .S .  
3 2 4 , 97  S .C t .  18 4 3 , 52 L .E d .2 d  3 9 6  (1 9 7 7 )  m ak e c lea r that 
p re feren tia l re lie f for m em b ers  o f  a class w hich  h as b een  su b ­
je c t  to p ast d iscrim in atio n  can  be aw arded  on a grou p b asis in 
th e  ex p e cta tio n  that m em b ers o f  th e  p re ferred  group w ere 
likely  to have been  su b ject to d iscrim in atio n . See 4 3 8  U .S .  at 
3 6 2  - 6 9 ,  98  S .C t .  2 7 3 3 . T e s tim o n y  in the reco rd  from  b lack  
o ffice rs  w ho en tered  the case  as in te rv e n in g  d efen d an ts 
estab lish ed  th at th is likelihood  w as tru e  in m an y  c a s e s .116

B u t the ra tio n ale  is b ro ad er than  th a t. T h e  societa l in terest 
in  e lim in atin g  em p loy m en t d iscrim in atio n  is “ su fficient in 
itselt to  ju s tify  re lie f  d irected  at classes ra th e r  th an  individual 
v ictim s o f  d iscrim in atio n  . . . ”  E E O C  v. A. T. &  T. C o . , 556  
F .2 d  167 , 175 - 7 7  ( 3 d C ir .  1 9 7 7 ), cert denied, 4 3 8  U .S .  9 1 5 , 98
S .C t .  3 1 4 5 , 57 L .E d .2 d  1161 (1 9 7 8 ) . C o n g ress  h as tak en  a 
s im ilar view  in 42  U .S .C .  § 6 7 0 5 ( f ) ( 2 )  w hich  a llocates 1 0 %  o f 
ce rta in  fed eral p ro jects  funds to  m in o rity  bu sin ess en terp rises 
w ithou t regard  to w h eth er the b en efic iaries h ad  them selves 
suffered  d iscrim in atio n . T h e  cou rts h av e upheld  this p ro v i­
sion . Fullilove v. K reps, 5 8 4  h .2d  6 0 0  (2d  C ir . 1 9 7 8 ), cert, granted  
4 4 4  U .S .  9 6 0 , 99  S .C t .  2 4 0 3 , 60  L .E d .2 d  10 6 4  (1 9 7 9 ) ; Ohio 
Contractors Assoc, v. Econom ic Development A d m in ., 5 8 0  F . 2d 213 
(6 th  C ir . 1 9 7 8 ). T h e  E E O C  gu idelines on affirm ativ e  action  
specifically  state that v o lu n tary  affirm ativ e  action  can  ben efit

116 S e e  n .  6 8 ,  supra, a n d  a c c o m p a n y i n g  t e x t .



215a

p ersons not show n to have b een  v ictim ized  by  past d iscrim in a ­
tio n . See 2 9  C .F .R .  § 1 6 0 8 .4 (c ) .  T h e  S u p rem e C o u r t ’s o p in ­
ion in Weber is on ly  the la test co n firm atio n  o f  th is view . N one 
o f  the b lack  w orkers assisted  by  the c ra ft-tra in in g  p referen ce 
could be said to b e  id en tifiab le  v ictim s o f  past d iscrim in atio n . 
See also M aehren v. City o f  Seattle, 92  W a sh .2d 4 8 0 , 5 9 9  P .2 d  
1255  (1 9 7 9 ).

U n lik e  M itchell v. M id-C ontinental Spring C o ., 583  F .2 d  275  
(6 th  C ir . 1 9 7 8 ), cert denied, 441 U .S .  9 2 2 , 99  S .C t .  2 0 3 0 , 60  
L .E d .2 d  3 9 6  (1 9 7 9 ) , the u n d erly in g  d iscrim in atio n  in this 
case can n o t b e  said to be fully rem ed ied  w here the m ost recen t 
d ep artm en t figu res show  a  city  w hose p op u lation  is over 50 % 
b lack , 21 % o f  the lieu ten an ts are  b lack  and  alm ost 4 0 %  o f  the 
police officers are  b lack . M o re o v e r, in  this case there has b een  
a show ing o f  h arsh , in ten tio n a l p ast d iscrim in atio n .

P la in tiffs  tread  heav ily  on the n o tio n  th at the affirm ativ e  a c ­
tion  plan  w as u n reaso n ab le  b ecau se  it iso lated  b lack s from  
co m p etin g  w ith  w hites for p ro m o tion s, ju s t  as the D av is 
M e d ica l S c h o o l’ s q u o ta  did. S e e 4 3 8  U .S .  at 3 1 9 - 2 0 ,  9 8  S .C t .  
27 3 3  (o p in io n  o f  Pow ell, J ) .  T h is  a rg u m en t ign ores the 
specific , rem ed ia l n a tu re  o f  the C ity ’s racia l p referen ce. 
U n lik e  the g en era l societal d iscrim in atio n  addressed  in  B akke, 
the p ast d iscrim in atio n  in  this case w as d irect an d  still h ad  
on g oin g  effects. T h e  C ity ’s a ffirm ativ e  actio n  p ro g ram  in  this 
case no m o re  iso lates w hites and b lack s from  com p etition  th an  
the a ffirm ativ e  actio n  p ro g ram  in  W eber o r the p ro g ram  
ord ered  by  th is C o u rt in  Stam ps v. Detroit E d ison , 3 6 5  F .S u p p . 
87 (E .D .M ic h .  1973 ).

O n  b a la n ce , the 50/50 ratio  is reaso n ab le . It  allow s large 
n u m b ers o f  w hite officers to b e  p rom oted  as w ell as needed 
b la ck  o fficers. T h e  o fficers are  eq u ally  q u alified . R a c e ­
con sciou s p ro m o tion s help  to rem ed y  p resen t effects o f  past



216a

d iscrim in atio n  and  also en su re  th at the C ity ’s op eration al 
n eed  for b lack  officers is m e t .117 T h e  a ffirm ativ e  a c tio n  p ro ­
g ram  w as n ecessary  to en su re  the rapid erad ica tio n  o f  past 
d iscrim in ato ry  effects; n o th in g  less th an  race-co n scio u s p ro ­
m o tio n s could do this.

D . State L aw  Claims
[21] P la in tiffs  assert that th e ir rig hts u n d er the M ich ig an  

F a ir  E m p lo y m en t P ra ctices  A ct, M .C .L .A .  § 4 2 3 .3 0 1  et seq ., 
M S A . § 17 .4 5 8  (3 0 1 )  et seq ., the E llio t-L a rso n  C iv il R ig h ts  
A c t, M .C .L .A .  § 3 7 .2 2 0 1  e t s e q .,  M .S .A .  § 3 .5 4 8 ( 2 0 1 )  et seq. 
an d  A rtic le  1, S e ctio n  2 o f  the M ic h ig a n  C o n stitu tio n  w ere 
v io lated .

E a c h  o f  these A cts p ro h ib it rac ia l d iscrim in atio n  m u ch  as 
T it le  V I I  does. S ta te  ju d g e s  in terp re tin g  these state provisions 
lo o k  to fed eral case law  for g u id an ce. S eee .g ., C iv il R ights Comm  
v. Chrysler, 8 0  M ic h .A p p . 3 6 8 , 3 7 5 , n . 4 , 263  N .W .2 d  376 
(1 9 7 7 ) . T h e re  is no  reason  to believe that the M ic h ig a n  C ou rts 
w ould  n ot follow  the S u p rem e C o u r t ’s reaso n in g  in W eber in 
in terp re tin g  th e ir ow n law .

T h is  conclu sion  is reinforced  by the M ich ig a n  C iv il R ights 
A ct o f  1977 , M .C .L .A .  § 3 7 .2 2 1 0 , w hich perm its a “ plan to 
e lim in ate  present effects o f  past d iscrim in atory  practices or 
assure equ al op p ortunity  with respect to . . . race  . . . ”  i f  filed 
w ith  the M ich ig an  C iv il R ig h ts  C om m ission . T h u s , M ich ig an  
statu tory  law  goes beyond the federal statutes in favor o f  volun­
tary  rem edial m easu res. T h e  C ity  o f  D e tro it’ s affirm ative ac­
tion  p lan  was in itiated  three years before this statute was 
enacted . H ow ever, a fter the sta tu te ’s passage, the D ep artm ent 
received  a  filing d ispensation from  the M ich ig an  C iv il R ights 
C om m ission .

117 See s e c t i o n  V I I ,  in fra.



217a

[22] R a n d  v. C iv il Service C om m ., 71 M ic h .A p p . 5 8 1 , 2 4 8 , 
N .W .2 d  6 2 4  (1 9 7 6 ) , in v alid atin g  p referen tia l p ro m o tion s, is 
d istin g u ish ab le  b ecau se  th ere  w as no fin d in g  o f  d iscrim in atio n  
in  th a t case w hich  w ould au th orize the D e p artm e n t o f  C iv il 
Se rv ice  to d isregard  the results o f  its ow n test as it did. In  this 
case , find ings o f  p ast d iscrim in atio n  w ere m ad e and  the 
reco rd  supports th e m . T h e r e  is no  reason  to believe th at the 
M ic h ig a n  C o u rts  w ould reach  a d ifferen t resu lt on these facts. 
F u rth e r , b ecau se  the B o ard  o f  P o lice  C o m m issio n ers was 
u n d er an  a ffirm ativ e  du ty  u n d er the U .S .  C o n stitu tio n  to 
erad ica te  the effects o f  p ast d iscrim in atio n , even a state law 
forb id d in g  v o lu n tary  a ffirm ativ e  ac tio n  cou ld  not stand  in  the 
w ay. See M cD an iel v. B arresi, 4 0 2  U .S .  3 9 , 91 S .C t .  12 8 7 , 28 

L .E d .2 d  582  (1 9 7 1 ) .

P la in tiffs  also c la im  th at the C ity  refu sed  to  b a rg a in  over 
p ro m o tio n a l c r ite r ia . T h e re  is no ev id ence o f  th is in  the 
re c o rd .118 T h e  affirm ativ e  actio n  p ro m o tion s w ere m ad e from  
J u ly  1974  to J u ly  1977 and  w ere m ad e p u rsu an t to the p ro v i­
sions o f  C h a p te r  11 , section  7 -1 1 1 4  o f  the D e tro it  C ity  
C h a p te r . A s req u ired  b y  th at p rovision , each  tim e th at the 
C h ie f  o f  P o lice  reco m m en d ed  th a t affirm ativ e  actio n  p ro m o ­
tion s b e  done ou t o f  ra n k  o rd er, h e  su bm itted  “ w ritten 
re a so n s”  to the B o a rd  in  the form  o f  sta tistica l in form atio n  
co n cern in g  D e tro it ’ s h irin g  and p ro m o tio n  p ractices.

[23] P la in tiffs  finally  raise  a due p rocess q u estion . T h e  
M ic h ig a n  state cases co n cern in g  due p rocess e. g. C asad  v. City 
o f  Ja c k so n ,  79 M ic h .A p p . 5 7 7 , 263  N .W .2 d  19 (1 9 7 7 )  have 
looked  to state law  to see w h eth er a p ro p erty  rig ht has b een  
crea ted . T h is  is the sam e ap p roach  th a t the fed eral cases take. 
See e. g. B ishop  v. W ood, 4 2 6  U .S .  3 4 1 , 9 6  S .C t .  2 0 7 4 , 48  
L .E d .2 d  6 8 4  (1 9 7 6 ) . H ow ev er it does not ap p ear th at p u blic 
em p loy m en t is a  p ro p erty  rig ht u n d er M ich ig a n  state law . In

118 See n .  1 0 2 ,  supra.



218a

th is case, the C ity  fully com p lied  w ith  the ab o v e-c ited  p ro v i­
sions o f  the C ity  C h a rte r  w hich  sp ecifically  allow  the B o a rd  to 
p ro m o te  can d id ates ou t o f  ord er. P la in tiffs  p o in t to  no o th er 
sou rce o f  state law  for th e ir “ p ro p erty  r ig h t .”

[24] P la in tiffs do cla im  that the B o a rd  o f  P o lice  C o m m is­
sion ers v io lated  the C ity  C h a rte r  b y  d en y in g  w hite o fficers 
th e ir  rig h t to appeal a p ro m o tio n  i f  it w as based  on  a p ro test to 
th e  affirm ativ e  action  p lan . T h e r e  is n o th in g  to this c la im . 
T h e  pu rpose o f ind iv idual appeals is to h ea r ind iv idual 
g riev an ces. T h e  w hite officers who w ere bypassed  by  a ffir­
m ativ e  actio n  w ere co m p la in in g  ab ou t B o a rd  P o licy , n o t an  
in ju stice  u n iq u e to th em  as ind iv id u als. P o licy -m a k in g  q u es­
tio n s w ere h an d led  by  the B o a rd  at p u blic m eetin g s. T h a t  is 
w here w hite officers cou ld  have m ad e th e ir case . I t  w as u n ­
q u estio n ab ly  reaso n ab le  for the B o a rd  to  d ism iss su m m arily  
all appeals based  on  p rotests to  the affirm ativ e  actio n  p lan .

V I I .  T H E  C I T Y ’ S O P E R A T IO N A L  
N E E D S D E F E N S E

[25] T h e  C ity  defendants argu e as an  indep endent ju s tific a ­
tion  for the prom otion  o f  b lack  officers to the ran k  o f  lieu tenant 
th at effective law en forcem ent required  that the P olice D e p a rt­
m en t at all ranks roughly reflect the population w hich it serves. 
T h e y  argue that the affirm ative action  program  has 1) helped 
the police solve crim e by fostering citizen support for the depart­
m ent, 2) im proved the safety o f  police officers, 3 ) reduced riots, 
b ru tality , citizen com plain ts and d em onstrations, 4 ) fostered 
equ al treatm en t o f  citizens, 5 ) provided role m odels for you ng 
b lack  officers, and 6) helped to accom plish  necessary  police 
duties such as u nd ercover w ork or crow d con tro l in black 
n eig h b orh ood s.

P la in t if f s  a rg u e  th a t  th is  d e fe n se  s te re o ty p e s  w h ite  
lieu ten an ts as b e in g  u n ab le  to effectively  su pervise b lack



219a

officers or to re la te  to b lack  citizens and that there  is no w ay to 
co rre la te  c rim e  red u ctio n  to  the a ffirm ativ e  actio n  p rog ram . 
T h e  p lain tiffs fu rth er argu e th at any need  for b lack  officers in 
u n d erco v er w ork in  the b la ck  co m m u n ity  is fully m et by  b lack  
p a tro lm en  w ho cu rren tly  con stitu te  4 0  %  o f  the force and that 
no  sim ilar n eed  exists for b lack  lieu ten an ts. So  far as the p la in ­
tiffs are  co n cern ed , the C ity ’s a rg u m en t is sim ply th at w hites 
n eed  to b e  policed  b y  w hites, and  b lack s by  b lack s, and  that 
th e  C ity  thu s reg a rd s ra c e  as a  b o n a  fide o ccu p atio n a l 
q u alifica tio n .

F o r  y ears , cou rts h ave h eard  arg u m en ts th at an  em p loyer 
shou ld  n o t h av e  to h ire  b lack s b e ca u se  the em p lo y er’ s 
cu sto m ers did n o t like b lack s. F o r  years the cou rts have re­
je c te d  su ch  “ cu sto m er p re fe re n c e ”  arg u m en ts . Y e t , the 
C ity ’s o p era tio n a l needs defense sounds suspiciously  like the 
d iscred ited  “ cu sto m er p re fe re n ce ”  cla im . P la in tiffs  m ak e no 
b on es ab o u t th e ir  view  th at th is is exactly  w hat the C ity ’s 
arg u m en t am ou n ts to . T h is  C o u rt d isagrees.

T h e  C ity ’s o p eratio n al needs defense can n o t b e  separated  
from  the h isto rica l co n tex t in  w hich it arose. In  an  ideal w orld 
there is n o  q u estion  th a t the o p eratio n al needs defense would 
b e  u n ten ab le . H ow ev er, we do not live in an  ideal w orld , and 
the h istory  o f  race  re la tion s in  the C ity  o f  D e tro it  is fa r  from  
ideal. T h e  h istory  o f  th e  re la tion sh ip  betw een  the D etro it 
P o lice  D e p a rtm e n t and  the b lack  co m m u n ity  is especially  sad. 
In  p art I I  o f  this op in ion , th is C o u rt h as ou tlin ed  m an y  o f  the 
D e p a rtm e n t’s p ractices v is-a-v is its ow n b lack  officers. U n fo r­
tu n ate ly , the reco rd  reveals th a t the D e p a rtm e n t’s a ttitud e 
tow ard  the b la ck  co m m u n ity  was no b e tte r  th an  its attitu d e 
tow ard  its b la ck  officers.

A . T h e B lack  C o m m u n ity  an d  R acial D iscrim in atio n  by  
the Police  D ep artm en t

T h e re  is exten siv e ev id ence in the reco rd  w hich  shows that 
the P o lice  D e p a rtm e n t and the b lack  co m m u n ity  w ere at each



220a

o th e r ’s throats a t least u n til the early  1 9 7 0 ’s. A  p h rase  w hich  
w as co n stan tly  used at tria l w as th a t the P o lice  D e p a rtm e n t 
w as reg ard ed  as an  “ o ccu p atio n  a rm y ”  in  the b la ck  c o m ­
m u n ity  and  w as treated  as su ch. P re c in c t station s in  th e  b la ck  
co m m u n ity  looked  like a rm ed  fortresses; they  w ere shot a t by 
p assin g  cars  o f  b lack  you ths. O fficers  w ere a fra id  to  v en tu re  
in to  the co m m u n ity  for fear o f  b e in g  h arassed  o r w orse.

T h is  sad state o f  affairs had  m an y  causes. T h e  p rim ary  cause 
w as d iscrim in atory  p ractices. R a c ia l crite ria  en tered  in to  the 
everyd ay ju d g m en ts  o f  police officers reg ard in g  who they  stop­
ped, searched  or detained and  how  they  did it. R a c ia l slurs 
w ere com m on . Police b ru tality  against b lack  citizens was less 
co m m o n  b u t still severe. So m e o f the testim on y o f  M r . A rth u r 
Jo h n s o n  before the C iv il R ig h ts  C om m ission  in  19 6 0 , p re­
viously  quoted  in  this o p in io n ,119 vividly p ortrays the attitudes 
an d  p ractices o f  the D ep artm en t —  p ractices that M r . Jo h n so n  
testified  w ere such that there w asn 't, a b lack  citizen  in  the C ity  
o f  D e tro it who had  not been  su b ject to  them .

W itn e ss  a fter w itness at tria l testified  th at d isc im in ato ry  
p olice  p ractices w ere co m m o n . In sp ecto r H a ro ld  Jo h n s o n  
testified  th at officers w ould o ften  stop b lack  m o torists fo r tra f­
fic  o ffen ses, search  the ca r , take the seats o f  the ca r  o u t, and 
th en  leave the seats on  the street w hen  they  w ere fin ished . 
D e p u ty  C h ie f  o f  P o lice  R e g in a ld  T u rn e r , who com m an d ed  
the ta c tica l m ob ile  u n it sta rtin g  in  1 9 7 4 , co rro b o ra te d  this 
testim o n y . H e noted  th a t d isp rop o rtion ately  larg e n u m b ers  o f 
b la ck  c itizen s w ere in ju red  as a  result o f  tra ffic  stops. C h ie f  
H a r t  testified  th at “ [ i] t ’s a  m a tte r  o f  p u blic  record  th at 
m em b ers  o f  the b lack  co m m u n ity  h av e  b een  b ea ten  up by 
police u n ju stifiab ly  and w ithou t cau se; its a  m a tte r  o f  record . 
D ep u ty  C h ie f  B a n n o n  testified  th at in form al police ru les in  the 
forties and  fifties w ere th at “ all b lacks w est o f  W ood w ard

119 See s e c t i o n  I I A 5 ,  supra.



221a

A v en u e a fter  sundow n w ould be investig ated  unless they  w ere 
know n to the police o ff ic e r .”  T h is  “ p attern  o f  system atic 
d is c r im in a t io n ”  c o n tin u e d  a g a in s t  b la c k s  in  in d iv id u a l 

o ffice r-o n -c itizen  con tacts .

E m p ir ica l p ro o f o f  the on g o in g  crisis in  relation s betw een 
the D e p a rtm e n t and  the b la ck  co m m u n ity  is the fact that 
D e tro it  suffered  m a jo r  rio ts in  1943  and  1967 w hich  req u ierd  
fed eral troop s to subdue the v io len ce. T h is  C o u rt has already 
discussed these rio ts and  the m a jo r  ro le th at p o lice-b lack  co m ­
m u n ity  fric tio n  p layed in  tr ig g e rin g  each  o f  th em . T h is  C o u rt 
has also discussed the so -called  “ K erch e v a l in c id e n t”  o f 1966 . 
In  su bseq u en t y ears the C ity  u nd erw en t u nrest trig g ered , in 
1 9 6 8 , by  the assassin atio n  o f  M a rtin  L u th e r  K in g , J r .  and , in 
the follow ing y ears , by  a  special ta c tica l police  squ ad  know n as 

S T R E S S .

V iv id  testim o n y  was p resen ted  at tria l reg ard in g  the N ew  
B eth e l C h u rch  in cid en t o f  1969  by  eyew itness police in sp ector 
M a c k  D o u g las. F o llow in g  rep orts th at a  w hite p o licem an  had 
b een  shot n e a r  the N ew  B eth el C h u rch , tw en ty  or th irty  
p o licem en  con v erg ed  on  the b u ild in g . T h e  people inside the 
ch u rch  w ere b la ck  and  inclu ded  w om en an d  ch ild ren . T h e  
police w ent on  an  u np rov oked  ram p ag e and  b eg an  sh ooting  
an d  lo o tin g . T h e  people in  the ch u rch  ducked for cov er as best 
they  cou ld . T h e  sh ooting  w as stopped by  two b lack  officers 
w ho p hysically  rem oved  the guns from  the h an ds o f  the w hite 
o fficers. T h is  in cid en t is an  ex trem e exam p le  o f  police p ra c­
tices w hich  ou trag ed  the b la ck  co m m u n ity .120

120 This event is illuminative because it demonstrates the impact which 
black officers can have on discrimination within the Department. Inspector 
Douglas was emphatic in concluding that had there been a black lieutenant 
on the scene, the misconduct would not have occurred in the first place. 
When viewed in light of this example, the City’s operational need defense 
is reasonable, if not compelling.



222a

T h e  D ep artm en t paid  a heavy p rice for its d iscrim in atory  
practices. T h e  defendants h av e  accu rately  ch aracterized  w hat 
resulted  as a “ cycle o f  v io len ce”  as the D ep artm en t and the 
b lack  com m u n ity  w arred  on each  other. S ix  to eight police 
officers a y ear would die in the line o f  duty; no  officer felt safe in 
the b lack  com m u nity . T h e  bu rd en  o f  the d iscrim in atory  police 
p ractices, how ever, was u ltim ately  b orn e by  the b lack  and 
w hite citizens o f  D etro it.

T h e  b lack  co m m u n ity ’s response to D e p artm e n t practices 
w as deep hatred  and  a lien a tio n .121 N ot only  did the com m u n ity  
h a te  the police, it had  no con fid en ce in  the p o lice ’s in terest in  
in v estig a tin g  or solving b lack  on  b la ck  crim e . T h is  lack  o f  co n ­
fid en ce w as ju s t if ia b le .122 T h e  result w as th at the police got no 
co o p era tio n  from  the b lack  co m m u n ity  in so lv ing crim e .

T h is  is s ig n ifican t b ecau se  citizen  co o p era tio n  is essen tia l to 
solve crim e . L a c k  o f  support in the b la ck  co m m u n ity  was 
d ev asta tin g  to the D e p a rtm e n t’s efforts to police the C ity . 
T h is  w as the view  o f  P o lice  C h ie f  H a rt , and  fo rm er C hiefs 
T a n n ia n  an d  M u rp h y . S o  su bstan tia l was the co m m u n ity ’s 
a lien a tio n  that at tim es th ere  was activ e  in terfere n ce  w ith 
o fficers p erfo rm in g  th e ir  duty. M a n y  tim es, crow ds developed 
w hen  th e  police arrived  at the scene o f  a  crim e . T h e se  crow ds 
w ere o ften  h ostile to  the police and  in terfered  w ith  th em .

121 Almost every witness at trial testified to this effect. The National Ad­
visory Commission on Civil Disorders also found this to be true — nation­
wide and in Detroit. A 1973 opinion survey by Market Opinion Research 
found statistically significant disparities in the perceptions of black and 
white residents toward the police. Unsurprisingly, the black citizens’ 
responses were far more negative.

122 The testimony of Inspector Harold Johnson showed that there was 
sound basis for the community’s feeling. He found that there were time 
delays in responding to calls from black neighborhoods, which were caused 
by the attitude of “ let them kill themselves and we will go pick up the 
pieces. ”



223a

W h ite  o fficers w ho had  responded  to a rad io  ru n  o ften  h ad  to 
get assistan ce for them selv es. T h e  police them selves —  and 
u ltim ately  the c itizen s o f  D e tro it —  w ere the real v ictim s o f  
d iscrim in ato ry  p ractices .

B . P revailin g  Attitudes in  the Police D epartm ent
T h e  u n d erly in g  cause o f  the above p roblem s was the 

D e p a rtm e n t’ s a ttitu d e  tow ard  b lack s. A s in d icated  in  o th er 
sections o f  th is op in io n , the D e p a rtm e n t was overw helm ingly  
w hite th rou g h  the m id  1970s, larg ely  b ecau se o f  d iscrim in a­
to ry  h irin g  p ractices . T h e  D e p a rtm e n t did not go ou t o f  its 
w ay to h ire  racist police  officers or to b reed  racism ; ra th er, the 
D e p a rtm e n t reflected  the p re ju d ices o f  the w hite society . 
T h e s e  p re ju d ices w ere ag g rav ated  b ecau se  m an y  n eig h b o r­
hoods —  an d  crim in a l suspects —  w ere b lack . T h e  D e p a rt­
m en t h ad  co n stan t co n ta ct w ith  the b lack  co m m u n ity , m u ch  
o f  it in volv ing  the arrest o f  b la ck  offend ers. In d iv id u al p re­
ju d ic e  h ad  m a n y  op p ortu n ities to m an ifest itself.

T h e  p red o m in an tly  w hite com p o sitio n  o f  the D e p a rtm e n t 
fa c ilita te d  d iscrim in a tio n . W h ite  o fficers knew  th a t th e ir 
fellow  w hite officers w ere to leran t o f  d iscrim in atio n  against 
b lack s. A s a  resu lt, d iscrim in ato ry  b eh a v io r flourished . T h e  
b la ck  co m m u n ity , in  tu rn , cam e to  h a te  m ost w hite officers. 
T h o se  w hite officers w ho w ere n ot p re ju d iced  felt the hostility  
o f  the b la ck  co m m u n ity  and the h a tred  o f  the b lack  crow ds 
w hich  g ath ered  at the scene o f  the crim es. T h e y  responded 
w ith resen tm en t o f  the co m m u n ity ’s a ttitu d e. T h u s , the p re­
ju d ic e  o f  som e w hite officers spaw ned a  cycle o f  v io len ce and 
a lien ation  in  w hich  b o th  the D e p a rtm e n t and  the com m u n ity  
w as cau g ht.

W h e n  u nd erstood  in  this lig h t, the o p eration al needs arg u ­
m en t m ak es a  great deal o f  sense. M o re  b lack  officers in the 
D e p a rtm e n t did n ot n ecessarily  m ean  th at p re ju d icia l a t­
titud es w ould go aw ay, bu t it did m ean  th at p re ju d ic ia l p ra c­
tices w ould b e  red u ced . O ccu p a tio n a l so lid arity  am o n g  w hite



224a

officers w as w hat facilita ted  d iscrim in atio n  in  the first p lace . It  
is on e th in g  to v erbally  or p h ysically  ab u se  a  b la ck  c itizen  or 
p riso n er in  fron t o f  a  grou p o f  fellow  w hite o fficers. It  is q u ite  
a n o th er to do the sam e th in g  in  fron t o f  som e b lack  officers. 
In cre a sin g  the n u m b er o f  b lack  o fficers b ro k e  the o ccu p atio n a l 
so lid arity  w hich  m ad e d iscrim in ato ry  p ractices easy.

C o rresp o n d in g ly , in creased  n u m b ers o f  b lack  o fficers p ro ­
v ided  reassu ran ce  to  the b lack  co m m u n ity  th at the C ity  was 
seriou s ab o u t e lim in atin g  d iscrim in atio n . T h e  p resen ce o f  
b la ck  o fficers w as in stru m en ta l in  b re a k in g  the cy cle  o f  a lie n a ­
tion  an d  v io len ce. T h e  p resen ce o f  b lack  o fficers w as a  critica l 
fa c to r  in  ch an g in g  the b lack  co m m u n ity ’s p ercep tio n  o f  the 
p olice  and  w in n in g  th e ir co o p era tio n  in  fig h tin g  crim e .

P la in tiffs  argu e th at w hat m atters is n ot so m u ch  the 
p resen ce  o f  b lack  lieutenants as the p resen ce o f  b la ck  patrolm en  
w ho a re  the ones ou t on  the street. T h e  testim on y  at tria l 
d em o n stra tes th at it is im p o rtan t to  h ave b lack s at all levels. 
T h e  im p o rtan ce  o f  b lack  lieu ten an ts in  red u cin g  d iscrim in a­
to ry  p ractices can n o t be o v erstated . I t  is v ery  d ifficu lt to 
m is tre a t b lacks i f  on e know s th at the co m m a n d in g  o fficer is 
b lack . In sp ecto r D ou glas em p hasized  th at the p resen ce  o f  a 
b la ck  lieu ten an t at police  raid s en su red  th at b lack s on the 
scene w ould n ot be abu sed . H e  sp ecifically  cited  the in cid en t 
a t N ew  B eth e l C h u rch , w hich  is d escribed  ab ov e, as an  in ­
stan ce o f  police m isco nd u ct tow ard  b lacks w hich  w ould not 
h ave occu rred  had  th ere  b een  a b lack  lieu ten an t on  the scene.

S im ila rly , a b lack  lieu ten an t affects the p ercep tion s o f  the 
b la ck  co m m u n ity . H e  is a co m m an d in g  officer w hose very  
p resen ce con firm s th at b lack s are  no lo n g er the second -class 
p o licem en  w hich they  used to be. C h ie f  H a rt put it th is w ay:

“ W h en  [citizens] a rriv e  at the p recin ct sta tion s, they  see 
som e b la ck  lieu ten an ts sittin g  b eh in d  the desk m ak in g  d eci­
sions on  th e ir  lives and  they  feel b e tte r  ab o u t th a t. T h e y  will



225a

co op erate  w ith  us. T h e y  d o n ’t feel th a t we are  an  arm y  o f  

o c c u p a tio n .”

T h e  testim o n y  at tria l show ed th at b lack  lieu ten an ts have 
o th er b en efic ia l effects. A t the p re cin ct, they  d irectly  oversee 
how  person s u n d er arrest are  trea ted . T h e y  help en su re that 
law s are  en forced  eq u ally  and  th a t an  arrest w as p roper. 
D e p u ty  C h ie f  R e g in a ld  T u r n e r  gave an  illu strative exam p le  
o f  a co m m o n  p ro b lem  w h ich  a  b lack  lieu ten an t helps solve:

“ A ll too  o ften , [d om estic re la tio n s assault] com p lain ts in 
p red o m in an tly  w hite p recin ct sta tion s, w here the sta ff in ­
side the sta tion  is p red o m in an tly  w h ite , and  the v ictim s or 
co m p la in in g  people are  b lack , are  q u ite  o ften  shunted  
aside. T h e y  are  to ld  th ere  is no c r im e .” 123

T w o  o th er exam p les w ere m en tio n ed  at tr ia l. In sp ector 
M a c k  D o u g las co m m en ted  u p on  the lead ersh ip  o f  b lack  
lie u te n a n ts  in  h a n d lin g  crow d s an d  d e m o n stra to rs . H e  
testified  co n cern in g  an  in cid en t w here a w hite o fficer had  got­
ten  in to  an  a lterca tio n  w ith a  b la ck  w om an  w hom  he h ad  stop­
ped for a tra ffic  offense . A  h ostile crow d o f  4 0 - 5 0  b lack s had 
g ath ered  and a  cry  o f  “ officer in  tro u b le ’ ’ w as p u t ou t over the 
rad io . T h e n -lie u te n a n t D o u g las, w ho is b lack , ru shed  to the 
p o ten tia lly -exp losive  scen e. H e  w as ab le to  ca lm  the crow d, 
assu re th em  th a t h e w ould person ally  look in to  the in cid ent, 

and  p ersu ad e th em  to disperse.

C h ie f  H a rt testified  con cern in g  a  b arricad ed  gu nm an  situa­
tion . W h e n  d ealing  w ith this crisis situ ation , the police have to 
handle both  the gu nm an  and the crow ds w hich inevitably  
develop. In  the p ast, the crow ds w ere often hostile to w hite

123 This Court did sustain a motion to strike part of Deputy Chief 
Turner’s testimony immediately afterward. However, it is clear from the 
transcript that the testimony quoted in the text was not part of that 
stricken.



226a

officers. W ith  a b lack  lieu ten an t in  con tro l, the crow ds w ere not 
a  problem .

P la in tiffs  em p h asize th at ra ce  should  not b e  an  o v errid in g  
facto r. T h e y  fault the affirm ativ e  actio n  p lan  for p la cin g  co n ­
sid eration s o f  race  ah ead  o f  co n sid era tio n s o f  in d iv id u al m erit. 
T h e y  co rrectly  p o in t ou t that there are  som e w hite officers 
w ho re la te  well to  b lack s b ecau se they  grew  up in  the b lack  
co m m u n ity , e tc. A n d  som e b lack  officers m ig h t b e  u n ab le  to 
re la te  w ell to any c itizen s —  w hite o r  b lack . T h is  arg u m en t 
h as force. In  fact, it w as co n sid era tio n s such as these w hich 
p ersu ad ed  the D e p a rtm e n t to  in stitu te  the o ra l b o ard  testin g  
p ro ced u re as p art o f  the p ro m o tio n a l m odel.

P la in tiffs ’ argu m en t is theoretically  valid bu t does not w ork 
in  the real w orld. G iv en  the h istory  o f  racia l tensions in D etro it, 
b lack  officers w ere far m o re  likely to relate  well to the b lack  
com m u n ity . T h e  w hite officer who had grow n up in the b lack  
com m u n ity  and had the co m m u n ity ’s trust and  confid ence was 
the excep tion . F u rth er , things h ad  reached  the point w here 
such officers w ere engulfed in the cycle o f  a lien ation  and 
v iolence betw een the D ep artm en t and  the com m u n ity . It  is 
c lea r that racia l classifications w ere in  ord er to ch ang e the 
percep tions o f  both  w hite officers and the b lack  com m u nity .

T h e  em p irica l p ro o f th at rac ia l c lassification s w ere needed 
is the testim o n y  o f  w itness a fter w itness as to the resu lts o f  
a ffirm ativ e  actio n  h ir in g  and  p ro m o tion s. C h ie f  H a rt  in  p a r­
ticu la r n oted  the h a rm o n y  w hich has grad u ally  d eveloped  b e t­
w een  the D e p a rtm e n t and  the co m m u n ity . H e  testified  th at as 
a  resu lt o f  the affirm ativ e  actio n  p ro g ram , th ere  w as a sign ifi­
can t d ecrease in  d iscrim in ato ry  police p ractices an d  a  co n ­
co m ita n t in crease  in  good feelings tow ard  the D e p a rtm e n t. 
T h e  affirm ativ e  actio n  p ro g ram  gave the D e p a rtm e n t the 
cred ib ility  in the b lack  co m m u n ity  w hich  had  b een  ab sen t 
p reviously . T h e  D e p a rtm e n t had  h istorica lly  b een  all b u t off- 
lim its to b lack s. N ow  the co m m u n ity  saw in creasin g  n u m b ers



227a

o f th e ir  friend s and n eig h b ors in  the D e p a rtm e n t, an d  at all 

levels.

T h e  good feelin g  w h ich  developed w as evident in  m an y  
w ays. A  survey b y  M a rk e t O p in io n  R e se a rc h  found th at while 
w hite attitu d es tow ard  the D e p a rtm e n t h ad  stab ilized , there 
w as a  “ d ra m a tic  in c re a se ”  in  the n u m b er o f  b lack s ra tin g  the 
re la tio n sh ip  b e tw e e n  th e  p o lice  an d  th e  c o m m u n ity  as 
“ g o o d .”  2 2 %  o f  b la ck  c itizen s surveyed so ch aracterized  the 
re la tion sh ip  in 1 9 7 3 ; 4 3 %  did so in  19 7 8 . C h ie f  H a rt  testified  
th at the “ o ccu p atio n  a rm y ”  m en ta lity  m elted  aw ay as did 
p ro b lem s o f  hostile crow ds and  su llen , u n coo p erativ e  citizens.

C h ie f  H a r t  and  D e p u ty  C h ie f  B a n n o n  d irectly  linked  the 
d ra m a tic  im p ro v em en t in  p o lice-co m m u n ity  re la tion s to the 
affirm ativ e  actio n  p lan  and  its o b jec tiv e  o f  h av in g  a police 
force reaso n ab ly  rep resen tativ e  o f  the co m m u n ity  it policed . 
F o rm e r  P o lice  C o m m issio n er P a tr ick  M u rp h y  testified  that 
w here w h ite  officers did  not share the cu ltu ra l valu es and 
b ack g ro u n d s o f  b la ck  citizen s, cou rses in  b lack  cu ltu re or sen­
sitiv ity  tra in in g  in  race  re la tion s for w hite officers did not 
w ork. In  C o m m iss io n er  M u rp h y ’s eyes, all the tra in in g  in  the 
w orld  cou ld  n ot “ su bstitu te for the u n d erstan d in g , the deep 
p ercep tion s o f  people w ho have com e from  the m in ority  b a ck ­
grou n d  and c u ltu re .”  T h e  fact th a t o th er D e p a rtm e n ta l ef­
forts to im p rove p o lice-co m m u n ity  re lation s w ere , in  the 
w ords o f  D ep u ty  C h ie f  B a n n o n , “ absolu tely  in e ffe c tiv e ,”  
d em on stra tes the tru th  in  C o m m issio n er M u rp h y ’ s w ords, 
and co n firm  the n eed  for m o re  b la ck  officers a t all ran ks.

T h e  testim o n y  at tria l ad d itionally  linked  the affirm ative 
action  p lan  to less c itizen  com p la in ts , less shootings o f  police 
o fficers, and  u ltim ate ly  a  low ered crim e ra te . C h ie f  H a rt and 
D ep u ty  C h ie f  B a n n o n  testified  th a t the a ffirm ativ e  action  plan 
d ram atica lly  red u ced  c itiz e n s’ com p la in ts filed ag ain st the 
D e p a rtm e n t. C h ie f  H a rt testified  th at the p lan  resulted  in a 
red u ction  o f  the n u m b er o f  officers killed in  the lin e o f  duty o f



228a

from  6 to  8 each  y ea r  to zero . C h ie f  H a r t  testified  at tr ia l th a t 
no police o fficer has b een  killed  in  the lin e o f  duty since 19 7 4 , 
w hen  the affirm ativ e  actio n  p lan  w as in stitu ted . C h ie f  H a rt 
also testified  th a t crim e  w as red u ced  sig n ifican tly  b ecau se  o f 
p o lice-c itizen  co o p era tio n  fostered  b y  the a ffirm ativ e  actio n  
p ro g ram . F o rm e r  C h ie f  T a n n ia n  co rro b o ra te d  these view s:

“ A fter w e put su b stan tia l n u m b ers  o f  m in o rities  in  a 
su pervisory  cap acity  on  the street, I  found th at the n u m b er 
o f  co m p la in ts  from  a racia l stan d p oint w ent dow n an d  the 
level o f  co o p era tio n  in  te rm s o f  in fo rm atio n  th a t w itnesses 
at the scene ju s t  g ratu itou sly  o ffered  im p rov ed , and  the 
m ost sign ifican t exam p le  o f  fact th at I  ca n  p o in t to  is the 
h om icid e  area . W h e n  I took  ov er the P o lice  D e p a rtm e n t the 
h om icid e so lution  ra te  w as b etw een  50  and  6 0  p ercen t and 
w hen  I  left the P o lice  D e p a rtm e n t it w as b etw een  70 and  80  
p erce n t, and I  am  cla im in g  th a t th at is a  d irect result o f  
c itizen  c o o p e ra tio n .”

T h e  p lain tiffs q u estion  the con clu sio n s draw n b y  the above- 
c ited  w itnesses. T h e y  p oin t ou t th at cau se and effect re la tio n ­
ships betw een  the a ffirm ativ e  actio n  p ro g ram  and  crim e  or 
c itiz e n s’ com p la in ts are  very  d ifficu lt to  draw . C h ie f  H a rt  and 
D ep u ty  C h ie f  B a n n o n  b o th  con ced ed  th at v ariou s factors in 
ad d itio n  to  the affirm ativ e  ac tio n  p ro g ram  m a y  h av e co n ­
trib u ted  to  the red u ction  in  crim e. H ow ev er, b oth  ad hered  to 
th e ir  view  th a t the p ro g ram  w as a  sig n ifican t fa c to r in  cau sin g  
crim e  red u ction .

T h e r e  is c lear ev id en ce in  the record  th at b efo re  1974  there 
existed  en orm o u s ten sion  betw een  the D e p a rtm e n t and  the 
b la ck  co m m u n ity . T h e r e  is c le a r  ev id en ce in the reco rd  that 
a fter the in stitu tion  o f  the affirm ativ e  actio n  p ro g ram , police- 
co m m u n ity  re la tio n s im p rov ed  su b sta n tia lly , c r im e  w ent 
dow n, com p la in ts ag ain st the D e p a rtm e n t w ent dow n, and no 
police o fficers w ere killed  in  the lin e o f  duty. H ig h  ran k in g  
police officials a ttr ib u ted  this ch an g e  to the affirm ativ e  action



229a

p ro g ram  and  its g en era l a im  o f  h av in g  the D e p a rtm e n t at 
all levels —  reflect the C ity ’s p op u lation . A s p la in tiffs ’ cou nsel 
has ab ly  arg u ed , th ere  are  m an y  difficu lties w ith  draw ing sim ­
ple con clu sio n s ab o u t d ifficu lt p ro b lem s. H ow ev er, upon 
carefu l review  o f  the testim o n y , th is C o u rt believes th at no 
reason ab le  p erson  cou ld  fail to  conclu d e th at given the h istory  
o r a n tag o n ism  b etw een  the D e p a rtm e n t and  the b lack  co m ­
m u n ity , the affirm ativ e  actio n  p lan  w as a necessary  response 
to  w hat h ad  b een  an  on g oin g  city  crisis.

T h e  p la n ’s success in  im p ro v in g  p o lice-co m m u n ity  re la ­
tio n s and  u ltim ate ly  the q u ality  o f  life in  the C ity  is c lear on 
this reco rd . T h e  C o u rt n otes th a t n u m erou s prestig ious n a ­
tio n a l com m issio n s have cited  the need  to h ire  and p rom ote 
b lack  officers an d  to have the p olice  d ep artm en t reflect the 
co m m u n ity  it se rv e s .124 D e tro it ’s ex p e rien ce , fully ou tlined  at 
tr ia l, co n firm s the w isdom  o f  those reco m m en d atio n s.

124 See Nat’l Advisory Comm, on Criminal Justice Standards and 
Goals, Police (1973); Nat’l Comm, on Causes and Prevention of 
Violence, Final Report: T o  E stab lish  Ju s t ic e , T o  Insure D om estic Tranquility  
(1969); Report of the Nat’l Advisory Comm, on Civil Disorders (1968); 
President’s Commission on Law Enforcement and Administration of 

Ju s t ic e , T ask  Force R ep o rt: The Police (1967); Report on the Causes of 
Crime 242, Nat’l Comm, on Law Observance and Enforcement (Vol. I, 
1931) (“ the Wickersham Commission.” )

The need to have a police department reasonably reflect the city it 
serves has been commented upon by various courts:

“ Perhaps the most critical consideration in our view is that this is 
not a private employer and not simply an exercise in providing 
minorities with equal employment opportunity. This is a police 
department and the visibility of the black patrolman is a decided ad­
vantage for all segments of the public at a time when racial divisiveness 
is plaguing law enforcement.” B ridgeport G uardians, Inc. v. Bridgeport 

C iv il Service C o m m ., 482 F.2d 1333, 1341 (2d Cir. 1973), cert, denied, 421 
U .S. 991, 95 S.Ct. 1997, 44 L.Ed.2d 481 (1975). See also  N A A C P  v. 
A llen , 493 F.2d 614, 621 (5th Cir. 1974); L eag u e o f  L a tin  A m erican  

C itizens v. City o f  Santa A n a, 410 F.Supp. 873, 8 9 6 -7  (N.D. Cal. 1976).



230a

V I I I . C O N C L U S IO N

[26] T h e  d iscrim in ato ry  trea tm en t o f  b lack  o fficers and 
b la ck  citizens ou tlin ed  in  this reco rd  d em o n stra tes w ell the 
tru th  in  M r . Ju s t ic e  M a rs h a ll’s stron g  w ords in  his d issen tin g  
op in io n  in Bakke\

[ F ] o r  s e v e r a l h u n d r e d  y e a r s  N e g r o e s  h a v e  b e e n  
d iscrim in ated  ag a in st, n ot as in d iv id u als , b u t ra th er solely 
b ecau se  o f  the co lor o f  th e ir  skins. I t  is u n n ecessary  in  20th  
cen tu ry  A m e rica  to have in d iv idual N eg roes d em on stra te  
th at they  have b een  v ictim s o f  racia l d iscr im in a tio n ; the 
racism  o f  o u r society  h as b een  so p ervasiv e th a t n on e, 
regard less o f  w ealth  o r p osition , has m an ag ed  to  escap e its 
im p act. T h e  exp erien ce  o f  N egroes in  A m e rica  h as b een  
d ifferen t in k in d , n ot ju s t  in  d eg ree , from  th a t o f  o th er 
e th n ic  grou ps. It  is n ot m erely  the h isto ry  o f  slavery  alone 
b u t also th at a  w hole people w ere m ark ed  as in ferio r by  the 
law . A n d  th at m ark  has en d u red . T h e  d ream  o f  A m e rica  as 
the g reat m eltin g  pot has n ot b een  realized  for the N eg ro ; 
b ecau se  o f  his skin co lor he n ev er ev en  m ad e it in to the pot. 
4 3 8  U .S .  at 4 0 0 - 0 1 ,  98  S .C t .  at 2 8 0 5 .

T h e s e  are  the reasons w hy the C ity ’s a ffirm ativ e  actio n  p ro ­
g ram  is m ora lly  ju s t  and  n ecessary .

I t  is u n fo rtu n ate  th at a ffirm ativ e  a c tio n  p ro g ram s su ch  as 
th e  on e this case co n cern s are still need ed . N o on e relishes 
m ak in g  racia l classifica tion s. H o w ev er, u n til o u r society  p ro ­
gresses fu rth er, a ffirm ativ e  action  will rem a in  a n ecessity . A s 
M r . Ju s t ic e  B la ck m u n  stated  in  h is d issen tin g  op in ion  in 
B akke:

I suspect th at it w ould be im possible to a rran g e  an  a ffirm ­
ative action  p ro g ram  in a racia lly  n eu tra l w ay and  h ave it 
successfu l. T o  ask  that th is b e  so is to d em an d  the im p ossi­
b le . In  ord er to get b ey on d  ra c ism , we m ust first take a c ­
co u n t o f  race . T h e re  is n o  o th er w ay. A n d  in  ord er to treat



231a

som e p erson s eq u ally , we m u st trea t th em  d ifferently . 438  
U .S .  a t 4 0 7 , 98  S .C t .  a t 2 8 0 8 .

A ffirm ativ e  actio n  is n ot p leasan t for those m em b ers o f  the 
m a jo rity  grou p w ho are d irectly  affected  b y  it. T h is  C o u rt can  
sy m p ath ize w ith  the feelings o f  w hite o fficers who are passed 
o v er fo r p ro m o tio n  b ecau se  o f th e  a ffirm ativ e  actio n  p lan . 
T h e y  h ad  studied  lo n g  h ou rs an d  this C o u rt has no reason  to 
q u estion  th e ir o ft-sta ted  em o tio n a l h u rt a t b e in g  passed over 
for p ro m o tio n . O f  co u rse , loss o f  p ay and  oth er em olu m en ts is 
an  ev er-p resen t and  tan g ib le  h a rm  as w ell.

A t the sam e tim e , the im p act should n ot b e  overstated . 
A lth ou g h  th ere  w as testim o n y  th at the affirm ativ e  actio n  plan 
had caused  divisiveness w ith in  the D e p a r tm e n t,125 this C o u rt 
finds it far m o re  s ig n ifica n t th a t a ffirm a tiv e  a c tio n  has 
su b stan tia lly  red u ced  the deep h ostility  betw een the b lack  
co m m u n ity  and the police d ep artm en t. T h is  h as led to a  safer, 
m o re  p leasan t c ity  for officers and  c itizen s alike. M o re o v e r, 
p la in tiffs  th em selv es a d m it th a t o f  the 5 4  p la in tiff  class 
m em b ers , 4 0  h av e a lread y  b een  p ro m o ted  to the ran k  o f 
lieu ten an t. T h u s , it appears that as a p ractica l m a tte r, the ef­
fect o f  the affirm ativ e  actio n  p ro g ram  is to g u aran tee  b lacks 
access to the lie u te n a n ts ’ ra n k , b u t on ly  to p ostp one access for 
som e w hite officers w ho w ould otherw ise have b een  p rom oted  

earlier.

A  key th em e th rou g h o u t these p roceed in gs is that the in ­
div idu al p lain tiffs are the w holly in n o cen t v ictim s o f  the C ity  
o f  D e tro it ’s a ffirm ativ e  actio n  p lan  w hen it was the C ity  itse lf 
w hich  w as guilty o f  the orig in a l d iscrim in atio n  to start w ith .

125 The source for this view was the plaintiffs themselves. A psychiatrist 
who held a mass session with 20 members of the class corroborated that 
plaintiffs felt alienated and hostile because they were “ passed over.” 
Plaintiffs’ expert testing witness was quick to testify of his observations of 
racial hostility within the department. Whatever hostility is deemed to 
exist, it does not appear to have hurt the effectiveness of the Department.



232a

A t the very  least, the p la in tiffs w an t “ fro n t-p a y ”  fo r the p osi­
tions they  say they  should h ave g otten .

V a ria tio n s  on  this th em e h ave co m e up th rou g h o u t these 
p roceed in g s. P la in tiffs c la im  th at the C ity  should  b e  estop ped  
to arg u e th at its ow n ex am  w as n ot jo b -re la te d . P la in tiffs  cla im  
th at the C ity  should b e a r  a  h eav y  b u rd en  o f  p ro o f in  p ro v in g  
the issues in this case b ecau se  it h as co n tro l o v er the ev id en ce.

H ow ev er, accep tan ce  o f  any o f  p la in tiffs ’ arg u m en ts  w ould 
destroy v olu ntary  affirm ative action  by  an  em p loyer by  m ak in g  
its cost p ro h ib itive . I t  is tru e that a ffirm ativ e  actio n  upsets the 
exp ecta tio n s o f  w hite w ork ers, bu t su ch  exp ecta tio n s are  in ­
deed tainted  w hen they are  based  on  a  legacy  o f  d iscrim in ation .

N o one has a  rig ht to be p ro m o ted , and how  on e receiv es a 
p ro m o tio n  in  the D e p a rtm e n t has o ften  b een  a m a tte r  o f  
ch a n ce . T w o  exam p les o f  actu a l o ccu rren ces in  D e p a rtm e n t 
h isto ry  d em on stra te  this. F irs t , in 19 7 0  the D e p a rtm e n t gave 
tw o ex am in atio n s for p ro m o tio n  to  the ran k  o f  S e rg ea n t. T h e  
first w as the “ re g u la r”  Se rg ean ts  e x a m in a tio n . T h e  second 
w as a special ex a m in a tio n  w hich  w as given  to all person s w ith 
th e  ra n k  o f  D e tectiv e . T h e  D e p a rtm e n t had decided  to abolish  
the ran k  o f  D etectiv e  and  m ad e a “ p o litic a l”  se ttlem en t w ith 
the D e te c tiv e ’s U n io n . E v ery  D e tectiv e  w ho took  the exam  
w as g iven  a  p assin g  score an d  w as p ro m o ted  to the ran k  o f 
S e rg e a n t.

S e co n d , in  1 9 7 0 , the D e p a rtm e n t decided to in crease  the 
n u m b ers  o f  su pervisory  p erson n el. A ll 3 7 7  can d id ates who 
p la ce d  on  th e  “ r e g u la r ”  S e rg e a n ts  lis t th a t y e a r  w ere 
u ltim ate ly  p ro m o ted . A s has b een  p reviou sly  n oted  in  this 
op in io n , betw een  1967 and  19 7 4  the ra tio  o f  serg ean ts to 
police officers was red u ced  from  1 :1 0 .8  to 1 :3 .4 . T h e  ra tio  o f  
lieu ten an ts to police officers w as red u ced  from  1 :2 3 .8  to 
1 :1 7 .4 .



233a

T h e  b en efic ia ries  o f  the above policy  decisions w ere o v er­
w h elm in gly  w h ite , since th ere  w ere few b lack  officers in  the 
D e p a rtm e n t e lig ib le  fo r p ro m o tio n  in  1970 . T h e  D e p a rt­
m e n t’s d ecision  to flood the se rg e a n t’s ra n k  is indeed  curiou s 
since it cam e ju s t  b efo re  larg e n u m b ers o f  b lack  o fficers, h ired  
a fter  the 1967  rio t, w ere elig ib le  for p ro m o tion .

T h e  C ity ’s a ffirm ativ e  actio n  p ro g ram  should not be seen as 
d ep riv in g  w hite officers o f  any rig ht to  a p ro m o tio n . In stead , 
it should  b e  seen  as a p ro g ram  co n ferrin g  a bon u s on  b lacks 
w ho, as a  g rou p , h ave b een  su b ject to  p ast d iscrim in ation . 
W h ite  officers in  1970  receiv ed  a n  u n exp ected  b on u s w hen the 
D e p a rtm e n t decided  to  p ro m o te  ev ery o ne on  the S e rg e a n t’s 
e lig ib ility  list. W h ite  o fficers can n o t reason ably  com p lain  
w hen  the D e p a rtm e n t, on  a fin d in g  o f  p ast d iscrim in atio n  and 
o p era tio n a l n eed , decided to  co n fer a  “ b o n u s”  on  b lacks in 

19 7 4  and su bseq u en t years.

P la in tiffs  h av e also co m p la in ed  th ro u g h o u t these p ro ­
ceed ing s th a t the affirm ativ e  actio n  p lan  is h arsh  and  u n ju stifi­
ab le  b ecau se  it does not rest on  in d iv id u al con sid eration s o f 
m erit. T h e  C o u rt feels th a t the op p osite  is tru e . T h e  n on- 
re trib u tiv e , c lass-based  n a tu re  o f  a ffirm ativ e  actio n  is perhaps 
its stron g est asset. A ffirm ativ e  actio n  is p ro sp ectiv e , it seeks to 
rem ed y  and  n ot destroy . W h e n  done v o lu n tarily , it accuses no 

ind iv id u al o f  w rongd oing.

In  this case , the ind iv id u alized  co n sid era tio n  p laintiffs de­
m an d  inv ites ind iv id u alized  con sid eratio n  o f  th em . T h is  
w ould open up a  P a n d o ra ’ s b o x  o f  recrim in a tio n s, w hich 
w ould be at b est u n h ealth y . F o r  y ears b lack s in  the police d e­
p a rtm e n t w ere treated  like second  class citizen s. I t  w as n ot the 
C ity  w hich  did th is, it w as the w hite o fficers. It  w as the w hite 
officers w ho w ere guilty o f  m istre a tin g  b lack  c itizen s. It  was 
w hite o fficers who w ent on  a tick et strik e in  1959  w hen the 
C ity  proposed  in teg ra tin g  squad cars. I t  w as w hite officers 
w ho fie rce ly  resisted  efforts to  in te g ra te  the d ep artm en t 

th rou g h o u t the 1 9 6 0 ’s.



234a

T h is  co u rt h as no w ay o f  k n ow ing  i f  an y  o f  th e  m em b e rs  o f  
the p la in tiff  class w ere gu ilty  o f  such  p ractices o r o f  co n d o n in g  
su ch  p ra c tic e s .126 T h e  C o u rt hopes th at n on e w ere . T h e  C ity  
did not follow  up op p ortu n ities to p u rsu e such  in q u iries at 
tr ia l; it did not seek re trib u tio n . T h e  C ity  did not ask  w hat the 
p la in tiffs and the L ie u ten a n ts  and Se rg ean ts  A sso cia tio n  w ere 
d o in g  d u rin g  the m an y  y ears th at w hite o fficers ab u sed  b lack  
officers in  the d ep artm en t an d  b lack  c itizen s on  the street. 
T h is  C o u rt will not ask e ith er.

In ste a d , this C o u rt will uphold  the C ity ’s a ffirm ativ e  actio n  
p lan  as p ro p er u n d er federal an d  state  la w .127 I t  is p ro p er 
b ecau se  it u ndoes y ears o f  d iscrim in atio n . I t  is p ro p er b ecau se

126 None of the plaintiffs who testified at trial admitted witnessing any 
discriminatory practices in the Department.

At trial, former Lieutenants and Sergeants Association president 
Joseph Clark, who had served in the Department since 1952, testified 
that he was unaware of any segregation within the police department dur­
ing his 26-year career. He was also unaware of any gulf between the black 
community and the police department. He also testified that he never 
gave much thought while he was in the department to whether there ex­
isted discrimination against blacks in hiring or promotions. When ques­
tioned about the 1959 ticket strike by white officers opposing the integra­
tion of squad cars, Sergeant Clark responded as follows:

The incident you are talking about occurred when the city fathers 
decided that we couldn’t work with the people we picked out or that 
picked us, that were were going to split all these crews up and equally 
integrate them. That’s when the trouble started.

Seargeant Clark later noted that squad cars were “ not segregated,” it 
was just a question of officers who “ chose their partners.”

127 Throughout these proceedings, plaintiffs have argued that findings of 
fact in D P O A  v. Young, 446 F.Supp. 979 (E.D .M ich. 1978), should collat­
erally estop defendants from relitigating many of the issues in this case. 
The Court has disagreed. W eber and B akke , superseding and controlling 
decisions that they are, destroy any argument for applying collateral 
estoppel here.



235a

it serves v ital C ity  needs. It  is p rop er b ecau se it looks to the 
fu tu re  as a  m ean s o f  rem ed y in g  a  sorry  p ast.

P la in tiffs  are  q u ite  rig h t th at som e form  o f term in atin g  
p eriod  needs to  b e  p laced  on  the a ffirm ativ e  action  p lan  —  
e ith er a d ate or a p oin t at w hich  the D e p a rtm e n t reach es a ce r­
ta in  rac ia l b a la n ce . T h e  B o a rd  o f  P o lice  C om m ission ers has 
held  up on  this p en d in g  the ou tco m e o f  th is litig ation . T h e  
C o u rt will req u est that the B o a rd  m eet and  estab lish  such an 
end  p o in t, w h ich  w ill be review ed b y  this C o u rt for reaso n a­
b len ess . T h e re a fte r , ju d g m e n t will b e  en tered  for the defen­
d ants and the co m p la in t d ism issed .

F IN A L  O P IN IO N

C ite  as 5 0 4  F  Su p p  841  ( E .D . M ic h , 1980)

K E I T H ,  C ircu it Ju d g e , S ittin g  b y  D esig n atio n .

T h is  case co n cern s the affirm ativ e  action  p ro g ram  o f  the 
D e tro it P o lice  D e p a rtm e n t. N u m ero u s op in ion s o f  th is C o u rt 
h ave d iscussed the p ro g ram  at len g th . A fter a lo n g  tria l this 
C o u r t en tered  an  exten siv e  op in ion  on  O cto b e r  1, 19 7 9 , 
u p h old in g  the C ity ’ s a ffirm ativ e  actio n  p ro g ram . T h e  only 
cav eat in  th is C o u r t ’s op in ion  w as th at som e form  o f  end -d ate 
n eed ed  to b e  p laced  on  the p ro g ram . T o  th at en d , th is C o u rt 
req u ested  that the B o ard  o f  P o lice  C o m m issio n ers  m eet and 
estab lish  an  en d -d ate , w hich this C o u rt w ould review  for 
reaso n ab len ess. T h e  B o a rd  h as m et and  estab lish ed  an  end- 
d a te , and  b o th  sides have m oved  for en try  o f  a fin al ord er in 
this case . In  ad d itio n , the C ity  defen d an ts h ave m oved  for 
costs, and the in terv en o rs h ave m oved  for a tto rn e y ’s fees. 
E a ch  o f  these issues w as h eard  at o ral arg u m en t on  M a rc h  19, 
19 8 0 . A t the h ea rin g , th is C o u rt review ed the B o a rd  o f  P olice 
C o m m iss io n e r ’s actio n s, an d  con clu d ed  th a t the en d -d ate was 
ap p ro p ria te  and  reaso n ab le . T h e  C o u rt requ ested  that the 
p arties draw  up a fin al o rd er, an d  su bm it it to the C o u rt. T h e  
p arties have b een  u n ab le  to agree on  a final o rd er. B ecau se o f



236a

th is, and  b ecau se this C o u rt reserv ed  a ru lin g  on  costs an d  a t­
to rn e y ’ s fees, th is C o u rt h ere in  sets ou t its fin al op in io n  and  
ju d g m e n t.

I .

[ 1 ,2 ]  In  its O cto b e r  1, 1979  o p in io n , th is C o u rt approved  
the C ity  o f  D e tro it ’ s a ffirm ativ e  actio n  p ro g ram  as it re la ted  to 
prom otions from  Sergeant to L ie u te n a n t.1 T h is  C ou rt endorsed 
th e  C it y ’s 50/50 B lack / W h ite  p ro m o tio n s fo rm u la . T h is  
C o u rt fu rth er endorsed  those a ffirm ativ e  actio n  p ro m o tion s 
w h ich  had  tak en  p lace up u n til th at tim e. B eca u se  the B o a rd  o f 
P o lice  C o m m issio n ers h ad  n ot estab lish ed  an  en d -p eriod  to 
the a ffirm ativ e  actio n  p ro m o tion s, th is C o u rt req u ested  that 
the B o a rd  do so. T h e  B o a rd  con v en ed  on  th ree  sep arate  o cca ­
sions fo r the pu rpose o f  estab lish in g  a  te rm in a tio n  p o in t to  the 
a ffirm a tiv e  actio n  p lan . P u b lic  h ea rin g s  w ere  h e ld , and  
cou n sel for the p lain tiffs activ ely  p artic ip ated . T h e  B o a rd  
adopted  the follow ing final reso lu tion  on  D e ce m b e r  2 0 , 1979 :

1 This court denied a jury trial in this case on the grounds that actual and 
punitive damages were unavailable because the City had acted in good 
faith. B ak er  v. City o f  D etroit, 458 F.Supp. 379 (E .D .M ich .1978). At the 
time the jury trial issue was briefed and argued, neither Regents o f  the 
U niversity o f  C a liforn ia  v. B a k k e , 438 U .S. 265, 98 S.Ct. 2733, 57 L.Ed.2d 
750 (1978) nor U nited  Steelw orkers v. W eber, 443 U .S. 193, 99 S.Ct. 2721, 
61 L.Ed.2d 480 (1979) had been decided. Plaintiffs were proceeding on 
the assumption that reverse discrimination suits present the same con­
siderations that “ ordinary” discrimination suits do. It is now clear, 
however, that such suits are very different.

In an “ ordinary” discrimination case, the sue is whether an employer 
violated the law by intentionally discriminating against the plaintiff or by 
adopting hiring or promotions criteria which are not job-related but 
which adversely impacted against members of a minority group. See e. g.

( footnotes continued on next page)



237a

(footnotes continuedfrom previous page)

D othard  v. R aw lin son , 433 U .S. 321, 97 S.Ct. 2720, 53 L.Ed.2d 786 
(1977). In a “ reverse” discrimination case, however, where an affirm­
ative action plan is under attack, no such issues are presented. There is no 
question that affirmative action programs discriminate against whites in 
the sense that the opportunities of whites for hiring or advancement are 
less than they would otherwise be. The question in a “ reverse” 
discrimination case is whether the affirmative action plan is a reasonable 
response to past discrimination. As Judge Lively, writing for the court, 
noted in D PO A  v. Young, 608 F.2d 671, 697 (6th Cir. 1979):

B a k k e  and W eber make it clear that a case involving a claim of 
discrimination against members of the white majority is not a simple 
mirror image of a case involving claims of discrimination against 
minorities. One analysis is required when those for whose benefit the 
Constitution was amended or a statute enacted claim discrimination. 
A different analysis must be made when the claimants are not members 
of a class historically subjected to discrimination. When claims are 
brought by members of a group formerly subjected to discrimination 
the case moves with the grain of the Constitution and national policy. 
A suit which seeks to prevent public action designed to alleviate the ef­
fects of past discrimination moves against the grain, and the official ac­
tions complained of must be subjected to the analysis prescribed in 
W eber and the plurality opinion in B a k k e  which we find controlling.

The analysis to be done in a reverse discrimination case does not pre­
sent any jury issues — only questions of law for ajudge to decide. Only a 
judge can make the legal determination of whether an affirmative action 
program was a reasonable response to past discrimination.

This case illustrates this proposition. Although there was a lengthy trial 
here, there were no disputed issues of fact which could have been sub­
mitted to a jury. The existence, operation and effect of the City of 
Detroit’s affirmative action plan are a matter of record. There is simply 
no dispute as to when, how and why the Board of Police Commissioners 
operated the affirmative action plan. See B a k er  v. City o f  D etroit, 483 
F.Supp. 919 (E.D .M ich. 1979).

Nor was there any real dispute about past discrimination in the Detroit 
Police Department. The plaintiffs presented no countervailing evidence 
on this question. They only tried to blunt the defendant’s presentation

(footnotes continued on next page)



238a

W H E R E A S , the B o a rd  o f  P o lice  C o m m iss io n ers  in J u l y  
o f  1 9 7 4 , m ad e a fin d in g  in its p u blic  session th a t the D e tro it 
P o lice  D e p a rtm e n t had  b een  guilty  o f  u nlaw ful racia l 
d iscrim in atio n  in  its h irin g  and  p ro m o tio n a l p ractices ;

W H E R E A S , the B o a rd  o f  P o lice  C o m m iss io n ers  has 
receiv ed  from  the D e p a rtm e n t n u m ero u s d o cu m en ts and 
statistics that in d icate  the D e p a rtm e n t is still ad v ersely  af­
fected  b y  the effects o f  p ast d iscrim in atio n ;

W H E R E A S , the B o a rd  o f  P o lice  C o m m issio n ers  has 
receiv ed  from  the C h ie f  o f  P o lice  a w ritten  p resen tatio n  
o u tlin in g  the reaso n ab le  goals and  o b jectiv es  o f  the A ffirm ­
ative A ction  P lan ;

( footnotes continuedfrom previous page)

through cross-examination. Indeed, plaintiffs contention throughout 
was that any evidence as to past discrimination was irrelevant and inad­
missible because they, as innocent parties, should not bear the brunt of 
affirmative action. Moreover, while this court did make extensive findings 
of fact concerning past discrimination in the Detroit Police Department, 
such findings are integral to the question of whether the City’s affirmative 
action plan was reasonable. It is clear that there was no issue, even relating 
to past discrimination, which could have been presented to a jury. The 
issue in a reverse discrimination case is how much affirmative action is 
allowable in light of a history of past discrimination. It is for the judge — 
and not a jury — to decide whether past discrimination by the entity in 
question justifies the affirmative action program in question.

This court notes that in a recent case the Fifth Circuit reached a similar 
conclusion in a case where the plaintiff alleged that his due process rights 
had been violated. D ow n in g  v. W illiam s, 624 F.2d 612 (5th Cir. 1980). 
Judge Tuttle wrote:

While a jury can certainly determine contested issues of fact, it cannot 
make determination of law, such as whether [the plaintiff] “ waived” 
his rights, or was provided “ adequate” notice. These determinations 
of how constitutional standards are to be applied to the case at hand can 
only be made by the judge, since they are questions of law. D ow ning, 
su pra  at 617.



239a

W H E R E A S , the B o ard  o f  P o lice  C o m m issio n ers  has 
receiv ed  n u m ero u s ex h ib its  and d ocu m en ts from  the C h ie f  
o f  P o lice  show ing the co n tin u ed  d rastic  u n d er-rep resen ta ­
tion  o f  B lack s at the ra n k  o f  serg ean t and lieu ten an t;

W H E R E A S , the B o a rd  o f  P o lice  C o m m issio n ers is co n ­
v in ced  th a t in  ord er to  im p rove its op eration al effectiveness 
in  crim e p rev en tio n  an d  so lu tion , th at the n u m b er o f  B lacks 
at the ran ks o f  serg ean t and  lieu ten an t be in creased ;

W H E R E A S , the B o a rd  o f  P o lice  C o m m issio n ers has 
d eterm in ed  th at the A ffirm ativ e  A ctio n  P la n , as proposed 
b y  the C h ie f  o f  P o lice , is su bstan tia lly  related  to the o b je c ­
tives o f  rem ed y in g  the effects o f  p rior d iscrim in atio n ;

W H E R E A S , the B o a rd  o f  P o lice  C o m m issio n ers has 
receiv ed  su b stan tia l ev id en ce th at the A ffirm ativ e  A ction  
P la n  w as su bstan tia lly  related  to  the o b jectiv es o f  im proved 
law  en fo rcem e n t;

W H E R E A S , the B o a rd  o f  P o lice  C o m m issio n ers  has 
d eterm in ed  th at ach iev in g  the o b jectiv e  o f  im proved  law 
e n fo rcem e n t; [sic]

W H E R E A S , the B o a rd  o f  P o lice  C o m m issio n ers  has 
d eterm in ed  that ach iev in g  the o b jectiv es o f  rem ed y in g  the 
effect o f  p ast d iscrim in atio n  req u ire  the im p lem en tatio n  o f 
a ce rta in  p ro m o tio n al ra tio ;

W H E R E A S , the B o a rd  o f  P o lice  C o m m issio n ers has 
receiv ed  su bstan tia l ev id en ce an d  statistics ten d in g  to show 
th at a 50/50 p ro m o tio n a l ra tio  w ill im p rove the law  en fo rce­
m en t cap ab ility  o f  the D e tro it  P o lice  D e p a rtm e n t;

W H E R E A S , T h e  B o a rd  o f  P o lice  C o m m issio n ers has 
con clu d ed  th at a 50/50 ratio  is the m ost reason ab le  m ethod  
o f  ach iev in g  the goal in  ord er to insu re p ro m o tion al op p or­
tu n ity  to all p ersons in  the D e tro it P o lice  D e p a rtm e n t to the 
ran ks o f  serg ean t and  lieu ten an t;



240a

W H E R E A S , the B o a rd  o f  P o lice  C o m m iss io n e rs  has 
con clu d ed  that the 50/50 ra tio  is the m ost reaso n ab le  m ean s 
av ailab le  to  co rre ct the h arsh  effects o f  p ast d iscrim in a tio n ;

W H E R E A S , the B o a rd  o f  P o lice  C o m m iss io n ers  h as 
con clu d ed  th a t the 50/50 ra tio  serves to  e n h a n ce  p u b lic  safe­
ty  b y  im p rov in g  law  en fo rcem e n t;

W H E R E A S , the B o a rd  o f  P o lice  C o m m iss io n ers  has 
b een  assured  th at all p ersons reco m m en d ed  for p ro m o tio n  
to the ran ks o f  sergean t and  lieu ten an t are su bstan tia lly  
eq u ally  qu alified  to p erfo rm  the jo b  for w hich  th ey  are  b e in g  
selected ;

W H E R E A S , the B o a rd  o f  P o lice  C o m m issio n ers  w ishes 
to  adopt and  in co rp o ra te  b y  re feren ce  the w ritten  p re sen ta ­
tio n  o f  all exh ib its , d ocu m en ts , m in u tes o f  its m eetin g  
w h erein  it d elib erated  the p ro m u lg atio n  an d  ad op tion  o f  
th is P la n ;

W H E R E A S , the B o a rd  o f  P o lice  C o m m issio n ers  has 
d eterm in ed  th at the p ro g ram  as d escribed  and  the C h ie f s  
reco m m e n d atio n s will ach ieve the o b jectiv es  as provided  
fo r in  the w ritten  p resen tatio n  in  as fa ir  a  m a n n e r  as p ossi­
b le  for all con cern ed ;

W H E R E A S , the B o a rd  o f  P o lice  C o m m issio n ers  d eter­
m in es at this tim e th at an  en d -goal o f  5 0 %  B la c k  officers at 
the ran k s o f  sergean t and  lieu ten an t is ap p ro p ria te  in ord er 
to m eet the o b jectiv es o f  the A ffirm ativ e  A ctio n  P la n  su b ject 
to  a  rad ica l shift o f  the d em og rap h ic  com p o sitio n  o f  the C ity  
o f  D e tro it  o r som e o th er u nforseen  facto r th a t m arked ly  
alters the c ircu m stan ces;

W H E R E A S , develop m ent o f  a jo b  re la ted , valid ated  and 
ra ce -n eu tra l p ro m o tio n a l m odel is essen tia l to b a rrin g  
d iscrim in atio n  in the fu tu re an d , th erefo re , to ach iev in g  a 
te rm in a tio n  o f  the A ffirm ativ e  A ctio n  P la n ;



241a

W H E R E A S , the B o a rd  o f  P o lice  C o m m issio n ers is o f  the 
op in ion  th at a  jo b  re la ted , valid ated  an d  racia lly -n eu tra l 
p ro m o tio n a l m od el for p ro m o tion s to  the ran ks o f  sergeant 
and  lieu ten an t is essen tia l to  the p ro p er fu n ctio n in g  o f  the 

D e p a rtm e n t;

W H E R E A S , the B o a rd  o f  P o lice  C o m m issio n ers  has 
receiv ed  legal advice from  its cou nsel th at the A ffirm ative 

A ctio n  P la n  is law ful;

W H E R E A S , the B o a rd  o f  P o lice  C o m m issio n ers has 
b een  in form ed  th a t it is u n d er a  legal o b lig a tio n  to rem edy 
the effects o f  the D e p a rtm e n t’s p rio r unlaw ful p ractices; 

and

W H E R E A S , the B o a rd  o f  P o lice  C o m m issio n ers has 
b een  assured  by  its cou nsel th at th ere  are n o  ex istin g  legal 
im p ed im en ts to  the ad op tion  o f  the A ffirm ativ e  A ctio n  P lan  

as described .

T H E R E F O R E ,  B E  I T  R E S O L V E D  B Y  T H E  B O A R D  
O F  P O L I C E  C O M M I S S I O N E R S  T H A T :

1. T h e  C h ie f  o f  P o lice  is au th orized  and  in stru cted  to 
tak e  A ffirm ativ e  A ctio n  to p ro m o te  ind iv iduals from  P e r­
sonnel O rd ers  77 -5 2 7  and  7 7 -5 2 8 , p u rsu an t to the A ffirm ­
ative A ctio n  R eso lu tio n  adopted  by  this B o a rd  on  J u ly  3 1 , 
1974 , and  reaffirm ed  on  D e ce m b e r  2 8 , 1 9 7 6 , A u gu st 4 , 
1977 , an d , also, S e ctio n  7 -1 1 4  o f  th e  C h a rte r  o f  the C ity  o f 
D e tro it  w h ich  p erm its the C h ie f  o f  P o lice  to pass over in ­
dividuals on  the e lig ib ility  reg ister a fter the C h ie f  o f  Police  
files, as h e  h as d one, w ritten  reason s accep tab le  to this 

B o ard .

B E  I T  F U R T H E R  R E S O L V E D  T H A T :

2. A n  en d -g oal o f  5 0 %  B la ck  officers a t the ran k  o f  
serg ean t and  lieu ten an t is ap p ro p ria te  at this tim e in  order



242a

to m eet the o b jectiv es  o f  the A ffirm ativ e  A ctio n  P la n , su b­
je c t  to a rad ica l shift o f  the d em og rap h ic  co m p o sitio n  o f  the 
C ity  o f  D etro it o r som e o th er u nforseen  factor that m arkedly  
alters the circu m stances.

B E  I T  F U R T H E R  R E S O L V E D  T H A T :

3 . T h e  A ffirm ativ e  A ctio n  P la n  for p ro m o tio n  to the 
ran ks o f  sergean t and  lieu ten an t will te rm in a te  w hen the 
en d -g oal is a tta in ed .

B E  I T  F U R T H E R  R E S O L V E D  T H A T :

4 . T h e  D e p a rtm e n t is d irected  to  develop , as soon as 
possib le , a jo b -re la te d , valid ated  and  rac ia lly -n eu tra l p ro ­
m o tio n a l m odel for the ran ks o f  serg ean t and lieu ten a n t.

A s this C o u rt n oted  in op en  cou rt on  M a rc h  19, 19 8 0 , the 
B o a r d ’s 5 0 %  p op u lation -based  a ffirm ativ e  actio n  en d -g oal is 
reaso n ab le . D ire c t su pport fo r this con clu sio n  com es from  
D .P .O .A . v. Young, 6 0 8  F .2 d  671 (6 th  C ir . 1 9 7 9 ), rev’ng 4 4 6  
F .S u p p . 9 7 9  ( E .D .M ic h . 1978 ). T h e r e , Ju d g e  L iv e ly  noted  
th a t ‘ ‘ a  ra tio  req u irem e n t eq u iv alen t to  the ra c ia l p ro p ortion  
o f  the la b o r m ark et ord in arily  ach ieves the ra c ia l b a la n ce  
w hich  w ould have existed  b u t for d is c r im in a tio n .”  Id . at 6 9 7 . 
See Id . a t 6 0 6 -9 7 . A ccord U nited States v. City o f  M iam i, F la . , 6 1 4  
F .2 d  13 2 2 , 1339  (5 th  C ir . 1 9 8 0 ).

T h e  p arties are in d ispute, how ever, over w hat form  a  final 
d ecree  should tak e. T h e  p lain tiffs sim ply  state th at th is C o u rt 
fou nd  the C ity ’ s actio n  to b e  co n stitu tio n a l, an d  th a t this 
should b e  the ex ten t o f  a final ord er. P la in tiffs  ap p aren tly  are 
con sid erin g  ch allen g in g  the C ity ’ s a ffirm ativ e  actio n  p ro g ram  
in  state cou rt on  state law  grou nd s. T h e  d efen d an ts w ant this 
C o u rt to a ffirm ativ ely  decree that the C ity  is to  co n tin u e  the 
affirm ativ e  actio n  p lan .

In  this C o u r t ’ s O cto b e r  1, 1979  opin ion , this C o u rt found 
that the C ity  o f  D etro it was u nder an affirm ative constitu tional



243a

duty to  co n d u ct a ffirm ativ e  actio n  p ro m o tion s. T h e  issues o f 
p ast d iscrim in atio n  and  o p era tio n a l n eed  h ave b een  fully 
litig ated . B eca u se  the C ity  v olu n tarily  adopted  a ffirm ativ e a c­
tio n , th is suit b y  the w hite p lain tiffs p laced  this C o u rt in  the 
p osition  o f  rev iew in g  the C ity ’s p ro g ram  an d  affirm ativ e a c­
tion  en d -g oal. H ad  no v o lu n tary  affirm ativ e  action  occu rred  
an d  h ad  b lack  officers filed  suit ag ain st the C ity  for p ast dis­
c r im in a tio n , the issues w ould n o t have b een  sign ifican tly  dif­
feren t. S u ch  a  suit m igh t w ell h ave resu lted  in this C o u r t ’s 
im p o sition  o f  an affirm ativ e  actio n  p lan  u pon the C ity  o f 
D e tro it .

[3] T h e  q u estion  th at has b een  ra ised , th e n , is a  novel one. 
W h e re  an  affirm ativ e  ac tio n  p lan  has b een  v olu n tarily  en tered  
in to  and  su stained  against a  rev erse d iscrim in atio n  ch alleng e, 
w h at is the effect o f  a c o u rt’ s ru lin g  su sta in in g  the affirm ative 
actio n  p lan? In  this C o u r t ’ s view , the C ity ’s a ffirm ativ e  action  
p lan  m u st h ave the force an d  effect o f  a n  ord er o f  this C o u rt.

T h e r e  are  im p o rtan t reason s w hy this C o u rt should en ter a 
d ecree . F irs t an d  forem ost is ju d ic ia l econ om y . T h e  C ity ’s af­
firm ativ e  actio n  p lan  as it re la tes to  p ro m o tion s from  sergeant 
to  lieu ten an t h as b een  fully litig ated  in  this fo ru m . T h e r e  is no 
reason  to  allow  ad d itional a ttacks on  th e  p lan  to  take p lace in 
the fu tu re . S eco n d , th is C o u rt has con clu d ed  that the C ity  is 
u n d er an  affirm ativ e  co n stitu tio n al duty to m ain ta in  a ffirm ­
ativ e  a c t io n .2 T h e r e  should  b e  n o  d ou bt ab o u t the m ean in g  
and effect o f  th is C o u r t ’ s d e term in atio n . A ffirm ativ e  action  is 
req u ired , not m erely  p erm itted .

2 This court notes that in a recent case the Ninth Circuit has ruled that 
there is no constitutional duty for an employer to take what it terms 
“ stacked deck” affirmative action, i. e., affirmative action which favors 
minority employees or applicants over majority employees or applicants. 
A ssociated  Gen. Contractors v. San Francisco U n ified  School D is t., 616 F.2d

(footnotes continued on next page)



244a.

F in a lly , there is the im p o rtan t p olicy  co n sid era tio n  o f  e n ­
co u rag in g  v o lu n tary  a ffirm ativ e  actio n . R e v e rse  d iscrim in a ­
tion  suits p lace an  em p loy er —  esp ecia lly  a m u n icip a lity  —  in 
a  d ifficu lt p osition . A  cou rt w hich  upholds a  v o lu n tary  a ffirm ­
ativ e  actio n  p lan  ag ain st a tta ck  should  p ro tect the p lan  by  giv­
in g  it the effect o f  a d ecree . O th erw ise , as ap p ears to b e  the 
case h ere , c o n tin u in g  efforts to  u n d erm in e  a ffirm ativ e  actio n

( footnotes continued from  previous page)

1381 (9th Cir. 1980). The distinction between what the Ninth Circuit 
terms “ stacked deck” affirmative action and “ reshuffle” affirmative ac­
tion is that in the latter instance the state only insures equal access to a 
benefit. This distinction has no basis in precedent, although it is an in­
teresting one from a theoretical perspective.

In ruling that there is no constitutional duty to take race-conscious af­
firmative action, the Ninth Circuit fails to take into account the broad 
language in opinions such as M illik en  v. B rad ley , 433 U .S . 267, 97 S.Ct. 
2749, 53 L.Ed.2d 745 (1977) and L o u is ia n a  v. U nited States, 380 U .S. 145, 
85 S.Ct. 817, 13 L.Ed.2d 709 (1965) that a state must “ eliminate the 
discriminatory effects of the past as well as bar like discrimination in the 
future” . Id . at 154, 85 S.Ct. at 822. The scope of the state’s duty is deter­
mined by the scope of the violation. This court might agree with the 
Ninth Circuit that general societal discrimination against blacks does not 
impose a general constitutional duty to take race-conscious affirmative 
action. However, where harsh past discrimination has left a police or fire 
department with a severe underrepresentation of blacks, nothing less 
than race-conscious affirmative action can undo the past discrimination. 
Simply allowing blacks access to the department would effectively con­
tinue years of discrimination. For this reason, this court believes that 
there are circumstances where race-conscious affirmative action is con­
stitutionally required. For the reasons outlined in its previous opinion, 
this court also believes that such circumstances are present in this case, 
and that the City of Detroit is under an affirmative constitutional duty to 
eliminate the effects of its past discrimination by instituting a race­
conscious affirmative action plan. This court notes that this view is in ac­
cord with D PO A  v. Young, 608 F .2d 671, 691-92 (6th Cir. 1979), which is 
controlling law in this circuit.



245a

will take p lace  on  v ariou s fron ts. T h e  E q u a l E m p lo y m en t O p ­
p o rtu n ity  C o m m iss io n  has p ro m u lg ated  gu idelines co n cern ­
in g  a ffirm ativ e  actio n . 2 9  C .F .R .  § 1 6 0 8 , et seq. In  these 
gu idelines th e  C o m m iss io n  em p h asized  the need  fo r volu n­
ta ry  co m p lian ce  w ith  T it le  V I I  an d  that “ those tak in g  such 
actio n  should  b e  afford ed  the p ro tectio n  ag ain st T itle  V I I  
liab ility  w hich  the C o m m issio n  is au th orized  to  provide u nd er 
S e c tio n  7 1 3 ( b ) ( 1 )  [42  U .S .C .  § 2 0 0 0 e -1 2 ]”  29 C .F .R .  
§ 1 6 0 8 (c ) . T h e se  sam e con sid eration s should lead  this C o u rt 
to  p ro tect —  and  su pervise —  a  v o lu n tary  a ffirm ativ e  action  
p lan . T h e  best w ay to  do this is to  give the affirm ativ e action  
p lan  the effect o f  a ju d ic ia l ju d g m e n t.

T h e  p ro ced u ra l p ostu re  o f  a  rev erse  d iscrim in atio n  case 
such  as this on e is very  s im ilar to  th at p resen ted  b y  a  consent 
d ecree . H ad  b lack  officers or the U .S .  G o v e rn m e n t filed a suit 
a lleg in g  illegal d iscrim in atio n  on  the p art o f  the C ity  o f  D e tro it 
and  seeking affirm ativ e  relief, it is likely  th at such a suit would 
h ave settled  an d  a con sen t decree en tered . T h a t  consent 
decree w ould th a n  h ave b een  su b ject to ju d ic ia l review , after 
due op p ortu n ity  for in terv en tio n  and/or o b je c tio n  by w hite of­
ficers. T h is  w as the p ro ced u ra l p ostu re of, for exam p le , United  
States v. City o f  M ia m i, 6 1 4  F .2 d  1322  (5 th  C ir . 1980) and 
United States v. City o f  A lexandria, 6 1 4  F .2 d  1358  (5 th  C ir . 1980 ).

A  v o lu n tary  affirm ativ e  action  p ro g ram  is very  s im ilar to an  
affirm ativ e  actio n  p ro g ram  co n ta in ed  in  a con sen t decree . In  a 
con sen t d ecree , the p arties ag ree  on  a co u rt o rd er in ord er to 
te rm in a te  on g oin g  lit ig a tio n . T h e  fact th a t the in ju n ctio n  was 
d rafted  b y  the p arties an d  only su b jec t to  approval by a cou rt 
does n o t affect its valid ity  or en fo rceab ility  as a ju d g m e n t. 
U nited States v. S w ift &  C o ., 2 8 6  U .S . 106 , 115 , 52 S . C t. 4 6 0 , 
4 6 2 , 76  L .E d . 9 9 9  (1 9 3 2 ) .

[4 ] In  a  v o lu n ta r y  a f f ir m a t iv e  a c t io n  s i tu a t io n , an  
em p loy er o r  m u n icip a lity , a fter m ak in g  a  se lf-assessm en t, in ­
stitu tes a  v o lu n tary  a ffirm ativ e  actio n  p ro g ram . A  suit c la im ­
in g  th at the affirm ativ e  action  p lan  is illegal p laces a cou rt in



246a

the p osition  o f  rev iew in g  the affirm ativ e  actio n  p lan  to see i f  it 
is reaso n ab le  in  light o f  past d iscrim in a tio n . T h is  is s im ilar to 
the p osition  th at a co u rt is in w hen it m ust pass on  an  a ffirm ­
ativ e  actio n  con sen t decree w hich  h as b een  o b jec ted  to b y  
in terv en in g  d efen d an ts. See U nited States v. City o f  M ia m i, supra. 
T h e r e  is no reason  to  m ak e m ean in g less d istin ctio n s. A  v o lu n ­
ta ry  affirm ativ e  actio n  p lan  w h ich  h as b een  ch allen g ed  in 
co u rt should b e  trea ted  like a  co n sen t d ecree .

[5] A n y  o th er ru lin g  by th is C o u rt w ould need lessly  e n ­
co u rag e  sham  litig a tio n .3 A n  em p loy er o r  m u n icip a lity  w hich  
co n tem p la tes  v o lu n tary  a ffirm ativ e  actio n  w ould seek  to p ro ­
tect itse lf by  a rra n g in g  a  law suit by  m in o rity  p la in tiffs and 
th en  quickly  con sen tin g  to  a ffirm ativ e  ac tio n  re lief. A  b e tter  
ru le  o f  law  w ould p erm it v o lu n tary  a ffirm ativ e  a c tio n , su b ject 
to  ju d ic ia l review  i f  a ttack ed . I f  the affirm ativ e  actio n  p lan  is 
u p h eld , how ever, the ap p roved  p lan  should  b e  treated  as a 
co u rt ju d g m e n t, ju s t  as a  con sen t decree is. It  is th is ru le  o f  law  
w h ich  this C o u rt will adopt.

In  U nited Steelworkers v. Weber, 4 4 3  U .S . 193 , 9 9 S .C t .  2 7 2 1 , 
61 L .E d .2 d  4 8 0  (1 9 7 9 )  the Su p rem e C o u rt estab lish ed  a 
“ zon e o f  rea so n a b len ess”  for v o lu n tary  affirm ativ e  actio n  by 
a  p riv a te  em p loy er. T h is  C o u rt has tak en  the p osition  th a t the 
Weber test should be exten d ed  to rev erse d iscrim in atio n  claim s 
b ro u g h t u n d er the F o u rteen th  A m en d m en t. H o w ev er, the 
co m p lete  litig ation  w hich  took  p lace h ere  h as en ab led  this

3 This problem is a real one. In A lexander v. B ah o u , 86 F .R .D . 194 
(N .D .N .Y . 1980), the mayor and fire chief of Sy racuse wished to institute 
affirmative action, but were blocked by the New York State Civil Service 
Law. They then instituted an action in federal district court, seeking 
authority to deviate from state law to the extent necessary to increase 
minority hiring in the Syracuse police and fire departments. The Justice 
Department intervened, and filed its own Title V II suit. The entire con­
troversy was finally resolved via a consent decree which was approved by 
the district judge.



247a

C o u rt to d eterm in e  th a t affirm ativ e  actio n  is req u ired . T h e  
ev id en ce in  this case goes fa r  b ey on d  W eber’s req u irem en ts. 
T h u s , th e re  is no  need  to ou tlin e  u n d er w hat specific c irc u m ­
stan ces a co u rt should  not affirm ativ ely  o rd er th at a v o lu n tary  
affirm ativ e  actio n  p lan  co n tin u e . S u ch  circu m stan ces are 
clearly  not p resen t h e r e .

T h e r e  is no q u estion  th a t this C o u rt has the au th ority  to 
e n te r  a ju d g m e n t d irectin g  th at affirm ativ e  actio n  con tin u e . 
T h e  C ity , in its an sw er, req u ested  this re lie f .4 T h e  Seventh  
C irc u it h as recen tly  approved  an  affirm ativ e  decree d irectin g  
a  school b o a rd  to  co n tin u e  a  v o lu n tary  d eseg reg ation  p lan . 
Joh n son  v. B oard  o f  Education o f  City o f  Chicago, 6 0 4  F. 2d 5 0 4  (7th
C ir . 1 9 7 9 ) v acated  for co n sid era tio n  o f  m o o tn e s s ,_____ U .S .
_____ , 101 S .C t .  3 3 9 , 66  L .E d .2 d  162 (1 9 8 0 ) . T h e  d esegrega­
tion  p lan  in  Joh n son  had  b een  ch alleng ed  by  disgruntled  
stu dents w ho w ere affected  b y  it. T h e  S e v e n th  C ircu it upheld 
the school b o a rd ’s p la n , an d  a ffirm ed  the d istrict c o u rt’s in ­
ju n c t io n  o rd e rin g  th a t th e  p lan  co n tin u e . A cco rd in g ly , th is 
C o u rt will en ter final ju d g m e n t o rd erin g  the C ity  o f  D e tro it to 
m a in ta in  its a ffirm ativ e  actio n  p ro g ram .

II. Attorney’s Fees

T h e  d efen d an t, C ity  o f  D e tro it, has not requ ested  a tto rn ey ’s 
fees from  the p laintiffs. H ow ever, the in terven in g  defendants, 
the G u ard ian s, have requested  that they  b e  aw arded a tto rn ey ’s 
fees pu rsu ant to 42 U .S .C .  § 1988 and  42 U .S .C .  § 2 0 0 0 e -5 (k ) .

T h e  G u ard ian s o f  M ich ig a n  and seven individuals are the 
in terven in g  defendants in this case. T h e  in tervenors are b lack  
police officers who have ben efited  or would b en efit from  affirm ­
ative action  prom otions.

4 See plaintiff’s request for relief, in Answer to First Amended Com­
plaint, filed May 25, 1977.



248a

T h e  p la in tiffs filed these cases in  O c to b e r  an d  N o v em b er o f  
1 9 7 5 .5 T r ia l  did not b eg in  u n til A u g u st o f  19 7 8 . T h e  in- 
terv en o rs  did n ot m ove to  in terv en e  u n til M a y  18 , 19 7 8 . T h is  
co u rt allow ed in terv en tio n  o v er p la in tiff’ s o b je c t io n s .6 P la in ­
tiffs now  cla im  th a t it w ould b e  u n fa ir  to  o rd er th e m  to p ay  a t­
to rn e y ’s fees to  th e  in terv en o rs . P la in tiffs  also c la im  th at 
u n d er the ru le  ad v an ced  in  Christians burg Garment Co. v. E E C C ,  
4 3 4  U .S .  4 1 2 , 98  S .C t .  6 9 4 , 5 4  L .E d .2 d  6 4 8  (1 9 7 8 )  a tto rn e y ’s 
fees ca n n o t be assessed  ag a in st them  u nless th e ir  suit was 
frivolou s.

T h e  in terv en ors exp la in  th a t th ey  felt the n eed  to  p ro tect 
th e ir  ow n in terests . T h is  need  b e ca m e  a cu te , they  say , a fter 
a n o th er d istrict ju d g e  o f  th is b en ch  issued an  o p in io n  fin d in g  
th a t affirm ativ e  action  p ro m o tion s o f  b lack s from  p atro lm en  
to sergeant w ere u ncon stitu tion al. D PO A v. Young, 4 4 6  F .S u p p . 
9 7 9  (E .D .M ic h . 1978 ), rev’d, 6 0 8  F .2 d  671 (6 th  C ir . 1979).

A s this C o u rt h as noted  th rou g h o u t th is litig a tio n , rev erse 
d iscrim in atio n  suits are  fa r  d ifferen t, p ro ced u ra lly  an d  a n a ly ­
tica lly , from  “ o rd in a ry ”  d iscrim in atio n  su its. T h e  em p loy er 
w h ich  v olu n tarily  in itia tes affirm ativ e  actio n  and  is sued by  a 
p erson  who is adversely affected by  the p rogram  is in a  difficult 
p o s itio n . T h e  em ployer m ay have to show its ow n past d iscrim ­
in atio n  against b lacks to ju stify  its affirm ative action  p lan . F o r  a 
v ariety  o f  reasons, em ployers will be re lu ctan t to  do th is. T h is  
w as the d ilem m a w hich the Su p rem e C o u rt answ ered in Weber 
regard in g  a  p rivate em p loyer: v o lu n tary  affirm ative action  is 
prop er w hen it is a  tem p orary  response to a rad ical im b alan ce 
in  tra d itio n a lly  seg reg ated  jo b  ca te g o rie s . T h a t  w ay an

5 Case No. 5-71937 was filed on October 7, 1975, by Kenneth A. Baker 
and six other individuals. Case No. 5-72264 was filed by Hanson Bratton, 
four other individual white male sergeants and the Detroit Police 
Lieutenants and Sergeants Association. This latter case was filed in Wayne 
County Circuit Court, and was removed to this court on November 26, 
1975.
6 The Motion to Intervene was granted on July 6, 1978.



249a

em ployer does not have to ind ict itse lf to  ju stify  the voluntary 
affirm ative action  p ro g ram .

A t th e  tim e  o f  tr ia l in  th is case W eber h ad  not been  decided. 
T o d a y  W eber’s ap p licab ility  to  state  em p loyers is n ot definitely  
settled , a lth ou gh  it soon m ay  b e . See M in n ick  v. C alifornia Dept, 
o f  Corrections, 95  C a l.A p p .3 d  5 0 6 , 157 C a l.R p tr . 2 6 0  (1st A pp.
D is t .)  (1 9 7 9 ) , cert, g ra n ted ,_____ U . S . ______ , 101 S .C t .  3 4 8 , 66
L .E d .2 d  211 (1 9 8 0 ) . O n e  w ay to m in im ize  the em p lo y er’s 
d ilem m a in  a  reverse d iscrim in atio n  case is to  allow  in terv en ­
tio n  by  p arties w ho h ave an  in cen tiv e  to  in trod u ce evidence o f 
past d iscrim in ation . T h a t  is w hy this C o u rt allowed the G u a rd ­
ians to in terven e in  this case.

T h e r e  w as sound reason  to  allow  in terv en tio n . T h e re  was 
no g u aran tee  th a t the C ity  w ould provide exten siv e evid ence 
o f  its ow n past d iscrim in atio n  in ju s tif ic a tio n  o f  the affirm ative 
actio n  p lan . T h e  d istrict co u rt in  D PO A  v. Young, 4 4 6  F .S u p p . 
9 7 9  (E .D .M ic h .  1 9 7 8 ) h ad  n ot found th e  C ity ’s ju stifica tio n  
for affirm ativ e  actio n  to  b e  accep tab le . F a irn ess d ictated  that 
the b la ck  police o fficers who w ould b e  h u rt by a  ru lin g  against 
a ffirm ativ e  action  b e  h ea rd . T h is  is esp ecially  tru e  s in ce , in 
th e ir  am en d ed  co m p la in t, the B ra tto n  p la in tiffs, am on g  other 
form s o f  re lief, req u ested  th a t b la ck  o fficers w ho had  already 
receiv ed  a ffirm ativ e  actio n  p ro m o tion s b e  dem oted  to  th e ir 
p rio r r a n k .7

A s it tu rn ed  o u t, th e  C ity  d efen d an ts, a t tr ia l, did p resent 
ex ten siv e  ev id en ce o f  p ast d iscrim in a tio n . W ith  h in d sight it 
cou ld  b e  argu ed  th at the p resen ce o f  cou nsel for in terven ors 
w as u n n ecessary . A t the sam e tim e , cou nsel for in terven ors 
did  an  excellen t jo b  at tr ia l. C o u n se l did not in terfere  w ith the 
p re se n ta tio n  o f  e ith e r  s id e ’s ca se . C o u n se l p ro tected  in - 
te rv e n o r’s in terests , and  p resen ted  useful ad d itional evidence

7 Bratton First Amended Complaint at 8. At the beginning of trial, the 
intervenors secured a stipulation with the plaintiffs striking this request 
for relief from the plaintiff’s complaint.



250a

at tria l on  the issue o f  past d iscrim in a tio n . P erh ap s the in ter- 
v en ors should h av e m oved  to in terv en e ea rlie r . H o w ev er, the 
p la in tiffs suffered  no p re ju d ice  from  th is.

[6] T h is  C ou rt feels that an  aw ard o f  a tto rn ey ’s fees is proper 
here. C ounsel for intervenors helped dem onstrate why the C ity ’s 
affirm ative action  program  was a necessary response to past 
d iscrim ination . T h e  intervenors furthered an  im p ortant public 
policy o f  ensuring that the State rem edy past d iscrim ination .

It  is especially appropriate that the D etro it Police L ie u ten an t’s 
an d  S e rg e a n t’s A ssocia tion  (L S A )  p ay for th e  in te rv e n o r’s a t­
to rn ey s fe e s .8 T h e  L S A  is the u n ion  to w hich  all o f  D e tro it ’s 
L ie u te n a n ts  and S erg ean ts m u st b e lo n g . T h is  litig a tio n  has 
b e e n  fu n d ed , on  the p la in tif f  s side, b y  the L S A . T h e  u nion  
m ad e a  special Zz %  assessm ent o f  its m em b ersh ip  to p ay for 
th is litig a tio n . T h u s , b o th  w hite an d  b la ck  officers are  h elp in g  
p ay  for the p la in tif f  s case .

W h e n  con fron ted  w ith ev id ence o f  past d iscrim in a tio n , the 
C ity  o f  D e tro it chose to fav or b lack  o fficers in  p ro m o tio n s. 
T h e  police u n ion  w as th en  cau g h t in  a d ilem m a. Sh o u ld  it 
figh t the affirm ativ e  action  p ro m o tion s or n o t?  I f  the u n ion  
opp osed  a ffirm ativ e actio n , it w ould ad v an ce the in terests o f  
its w hite m em b ers  at the exp ense o f  its b la ck  m em b ers. I f  the 
u n io n  acqu iesced  in a ffirm ativ e actio n , it w ould be d oing  the 
op p osite . T h e  u n ion  chose to  ad v ance the p osition  w hich  was 
fav ored  by a m a jo rity  o f  its m em b ers —  no affirm ativ e  actio n . 
B y  tak in g  this p osition , how ever, the u n ion  w as ac tin g  c o n ­
tra ry  to  the in terests o f  its b lack  o fficers. E sp ecia lly  since the 
b la ck  o fficers h ave p revailed  in  this litig a tio n , it is ju s t  to have 
the u n ion  pay for the rep resen ta tio n  afforded  its ow n m in o rity

8 At the hearing held on this motion on March 19, 1980, counsel for in­
tervenors made it clear that the request for attorney’s fees was directed 
against the union, and not the individual named plaintiffs. Counsel for 
the union did not object to this limitation. This court agrees. Any at­
torney’s fees should be paid by the union, and not individual plaintiffs.



251a

officers. T h e  C o u rt rep eats th a t cou nsel for the in terv en ors 
p layed  an  im p o rta n t, bu t su b o rd in a te , role in these p roceed ­
ings. C o u n se l ensu red  th at the in terests o f  b lack  officers would 

b e  fully p ro tected .

[7] T h is  C o u rt believes that it has clear au thority  to aw ard 
a tto rn e y ’s fees in  this u niqu e situ ation . It  is true that ordinarily 
a  p revailing  defendant can  only collect a tto rn ey ’s fees u nder 42 
U .S .C .  § 1988  if  p la in tiffs  suit was frivolous, u nreason able, or 
w ithou t fou n d ation . Christians burg Garment Co. v. E E O C ,  4 3 4  
U .S . 4 1 2 , 98  S .C t .  6 9 4 , 54  L .E d .2 d  6 4 8  (1 9 7 8 ) . In  con trast, 
u n d er 42 U .S .C .  § 1988  o r  42 U .S .C .  § 2 0 0 0 e -5 (k ) , a p rev ail­
ing  p la in tiff  o rd in arily  is to b e  aw arded  a tto rn e y ’s fees in  all 
b u t special c ircu m stan ce s. Christiansburg Garment C o., supra at 
4 1 6 -1 7 , 98  S .C t .  at 6 9 7 -6 9 8 . T h e  ra tio n a le  for this tw o-tiered  
stan d ard  com es from  N ew m an v. P iggie P ark  Enterprises, In c . , 
3 9 0  U .S .  4 0 0 , 88  S .C t .  9 6 4 , 19 L .E d .2 d  1263  (1 9 6 8 ) . O rd i­
n a rily  p la in tiffs, u n like d efen d an ts, are  “ p rivate atto rn ey  
g e n e ra ls”  w ho act to  e ra d ica te  u n law fu l d iscrim in a tio n . 
T h u s , a defen d an t who is v ictorio u s should ord in arily  not be 
allow ed to co llect a tto rn e y ’s fees u nless the su it brou g ht 
ag a in st h im  w as b aseless. O th erw ise , too m an y  plaintiffs 
w ould b e  d eterred  —  and  p u nished  —  for b rin g in g  d iscrim i­
n a tio n  cla im s. See Christiansburg Garment C o., supra, 4 3 4  U .S . at 
4 1 9 -2 0 , 98  S .C t .  a t 6 9 9 -7 0 0 .

T h is  co u rt h as no q u arre l w ith  the Christiansburg  ru le. 
H ow ev er, the C o u rt feels th at it is n ot ap p licab le in  the u niqu e 
circu m stan ce s o f  th is case . D ire c t support for this C o u r t ’s co n ­
clu sion  is co n ta in ed  in  the legislative h istory  o f  the C iv il 
R ig h ts  A tto rn e y ’s F ees A w ards A ct, 42  U .S .C .  § 1988 .

In  the la rg e  m a jo rity  o f  cases th at p arty  or p arties seeking 
to en fo rce  such  [civil] rights w ill b e  the p lain tiffs and/or 
p la in tiff-in terv en o rs. H o w ev er, in the p roced u ral posture 
o f  som e cases , the p arties  seeking to en force  such  rights m ay



252a

b e  th e  d efen d an ts and/or in terv en o rs . See e.g. Shelley v.
K raem er, 3 3 4  U .S . 1 [68  S .C t .  8 3 6 , 92  L .E d . 1161 ] (1 9 4 8 ) .

S .R e p .N o .9 4 -1 0 1 1 , 94 th  C o n g .2d . Sess. 4 , n . 4 , U .S .  C o d e 
C o n g . &  A d m in .N ew s, 1 9 7 6 , pp. 5 9 0 8 , 5 9 1 2  (1 9 7 6 ) .

In  Shelley v. Kraem er, supra, c ited  b y  th e  S e n a te  R e p o r t , the 
S u p re m e C o u rt reversed  ju d g m e n ts  o f  the M isso u ri and 
M ic h ig a n  S u p rem e C o u rts . In  the state  co u rts , w hite p lain tiffs 
h ad  p revailed  in  th e ir  cla im s th at restric tiv e  ra c ia l co v en an ts 
in  th e  deeds o f  ce rta in  p ro p erty  w ere v a lid , an d  p reven ted  
b lack s from  ow n ing  the p ro p erty . T h e  S u p re m e C o u rt held 
th a t the restrictiv e  co v en an ts v io lated  th e  F o u rte e n th  A m en d ­
m e n t, and  rev ersed . In  th at case , it h ap p en ed  th a t the p arties 
w hose rights w ere v in d icated  w ere d e fe n d a n ts .9

[8] In  the case at b a r , it h ap p en s th at the in terv en o rs w ere 
d efen d an ts. T h e y  ju s t  as easily  cou ld  have b een  p la in tiffs o r 
in terv en in g  p lain tiffs h ad  th ey , the U n ite d  S ta te s , o r  o th er 
b la ck  o fficers filed suit ag a in st the C ity . T h e  C iv il R ig h ts  A t­
to rn e y ’s F ee  A ct is to be lib e ra lly  con stru ed  to e ffectu ate  its 
p u rp oses. See Northernss v. B d . o f  E d . o f  M em phis Schools, 611 
F .2 d  6 2 4 , 6 3 2 -3 3  (6 th  C ir . 1 9 7 9 ), cert, denied, 4 4 7  U .S . 9 1 1 , 
100  S .C t .  2 9 9 9 , 6 4  L .E d .2d  8 6 2  (1 9 8 0 ) . T h e  p ro ced u ra l pos­
tu re  of the case should n ot b e  d ispositive. T h e  in terv en ors 
h av e  v in d icated  th e ir rig hts, and  this C o u rt believes it ju s t  and 
reaso n ab le  for the u n io n  to pay th e ir a tto rn e y ’s fees. A cco rd ­
in gly , this C o u rt does n ot feel that the restric tiv e  Christians burg 
d efen d an t-reco v ery  ru le  is ap p licab le  h ere . See R id d ell v. N a t ’l 
D em ocratic Party, 6 2 4  F .2 d  5 3 9 , 5 4 3  (5 th  C ir . 1 9 8 0 ); K ingsville

9 Additional support is present in P rate v. Freedm an , 583 F.2d 42, n. 2 (2d 
Cir. 1978) where the court in dicta  stated:

It may well be that defendants may on occasion be characterized as 
“ private attorneys general” who are entitled to the more favorable 
Supreme Court standard [in C hristiansburg].



253a

Indep. School D ist. v. Cooper, 611  F .2 d  11 0 9 , 1114  (5 th  C ir . 
1 9 8 0 ). See also H aycraft v. H ollenbach, 6 0 6  F .2 d  128 (6 th  C ir . 
1 9 7 9 ) (a tto rn e y ’s fees aw arded  ag ain st in terv en in g  defendant 
p u rsu an t to  th e  E m e rg e n cy  Sch oo l A ct o f  1 9 7 2 ); Brennan v. 
U nited Steelworkers o f  A m erica, 5 5 4  F .2 d  5 8 6  (3 rd  C ir . 1 9 7 7 ), cert, 
denied, 435  U .S .  9 7 7 , 98  S .C t .  1627 , 56 L .E d .2 d  71 (1 9 7 8 ). 
(In te rv e n in g  p la in tiff  in  L a n d ru m -G riffm  A ct case could 
reco v er a tto rn e y ’s fees).

In  su m m ary , th is C o u rt finds th at an  aw ard o f  a tto rn e y ’s 
fees is w arran ted . T h e  p resen ce o f  cou nsel for in terv en ors was 
useful and n ecessary . C ou n se l help ed  h is c lien ts to v ind icate 
th e ir  rig h ts. In  the circu m stan ce s o f  th is case , it is ju s t  to have 
th e  L ie u te n a n t’s and  S e rg e a n t’s A sso cia tio n  p ay for the 
rep resen ta tio n  o f  b o th  its b lack  and  its w hite officers.

[9] T h e  C o u rt n otes th a t th is sum  should not be onerous. 
T h e  in terv en o rs did  n ot tak e p art in  m ost p re -tria l d iscovery . 
A t tr ia l, cou nsel for in terv en o rs p layed a  su bsid iary  role while 
cou nsel for p la in tiffs and  defen d an ts p resen ted  the bu lk  o f  the 
testim o n y . C o u n se l for p lain tiffs an d  cou nsel for in terven ors 
are  u rged  to  agree on  a  figu re for reaso n ab le  a tto rn e y ’s fees. 
A b sen t ag ree m en t, th is C o u rt w ill estab lish  a  figure after all 
appeals h ave b een  e x h a u s te d .10

I I I .  C o sts

B eca u se  o f  the novel n a tu re  o f  th is litig a tio n , this C ou rt 
feels th a t all p arties should b e a r  th e ir  ow n costs in  this C o u rt.

10 This court’s determination that attorney’s fees should be awarded is a 
final, appealable order, even absent a determination of the exact amount 
to be awarded. M em p h is  Sheraton Corp. v. K irk ley , 614 F.2d 131 (6th Cir. 
1980).



IV. Conclusion

In  su m , this C o u rt finds th a t the C ity ’s A ffirm ativ e  A ctio n  
P la n  is b o th  rea so n a b le  an d  req u ired . T h e  p la in tiff  P o lice  
L ie u te n a n t’s and  S e rg e a n t’s A sso cia tio n  shall p ay  reaso n ab le  
a tto rn e y ’s fees to the in terv en in g  d efen d an ts. A ll o th er p arties 
w ill b e a r  th e ir  ow n costs.

F iled : N o v em b er 17 , 1980  
C a se  N o : 5 -7 2 2 6 4



255a

U N I T E D  S T A T E S  D I S T R I C T  C O U R T  
E A S T E R N  D I S T R I C T  O F  M I C H I G A N  

S O U T H E R N  D I V I S I O N

K enneth  B a k e r , A rth u r  B a rtn iczak ,
H anson B ratton , Pa tric k  J ordan ,
F rank K r ez o w ik , E l b er t  M cV ay and 
R o ber t  S c a lly ,

Plaintiffs,

and C a se  N o .: 5 -7 1 9 3 7

H anson B ratton , G ale B ogenn ,
W illiam  S h e l l , Pa trick  J ordan ,
C h arles M a h on ey , In d iv id u ally  an d  on 
b e h a lf  o f  all o th ers sim ilarly  situ ated  and  
T h e  D e t r o it  P o lice  L ieutenants &
S ergeants A ssociation ,

Plaintiffs,

v

C it y  of D e t r o it , a M u n ic ip a l 
co rp o ra tio n ; P h il ip  G . T annian, C h ie f  
o f  P o lice ; C oleman A . Y oung, M a y o r,
C ity  o f  D e tro it ; and T he B oard of 
P o lice  C o m m issio n ers , C ity  o f  D e tro it ,

Defendants,

and  C a se  N o .: 5 -7 2 2 6 4

G uardians of M ichigan , D avid L .
S im m on s, A rnold D . Payn e , J ames E .
C r a w fo r d , C linton D onaldson,
W il l ie  J ohnson, K enneth  M . J ohnson 
and A lfred  B ro o k s ,

Intervening Defendants.



256a

JU D G M E N T

In  a cco rd an ce  w ith  its p rev iou s op in ion s in  th is case , this 
C o u r t acknow ledges and exp ressly  ap p roves the fo llow ing 
reso lu tio n  adopted  by  the B o a rd  o f  P o lice  C o m m iss io n ers  on  
D e ce m b e r  2 0 , 1 9 7 9 ; and  acco rd in g ly  for p u rp oses o f  c larity  
an d  u n d erstan d in g  this C o u rt recites the reso lu tio n  in  its 
en tire ty :

W H E R E A S , the B o a rd  o f  P o lice  C o m m iss io n ers  in  J u l y  o f  
1 9 7 4 , m ad e a  fin d in g  in  its p u b lic  session th a t the D e tro it 
P o lice  D e p a rtm e n t h ad  b een  gu ilty  o f  u nlaw fu l ra c ia l d iscrim ­
in a tio n  in  its h irin g  and  p ro m o tio n a l p ra ctices ;

W H E R E A S ,  the B o a rd  o f  P o lice  C o m m iss io n e rs  h as 
receiv ed  from  the D e p a rtm e n t n u m ero u s d o cu m en ts and 
statistics that in d icate the D e p artm e n t is still adversely affected  
b y  the effects o f  the past d iscrim in a tio n ;

W H E R E A S ,  the B o a rd  o f  P o lice  C o m m iss io n e rs  h as 
receiv ed  from  the C h ie f  o f  P o lice  a w ritten  p re sen ta tio n  o u t­
lin in g  the reaso n ab le  goals and  o b jec tiv es  o f  the A ffirm ativ e  
A ctio n  P la n ;

W H E R E A S ,  the B o a rd  o f  P o lice  C o m m iss io n e rs  has 
receiv ed  n u m erou s exh ib its  an d  d ocu m en ts from  the C h ie f  o f  
P o lice  show ing the co n tin u ed  d rastic  u n d errep resen ta tio n  o f 
B la ck s  at the ran k  o f serg ean t and lieu ten an t;

W H E R E A S , the B o a rd  o f  P o lice  C o m m issio n ers  is co n ­
v in ced  th at in  ord er to im p rov e its o p era tio n a l effectiv en ess in 
c rim e  p rev en tio n  and  so lu tion , th at the n u m b e r o f  B lack s at 
the ran k s o f  serg ean t an d  lieu ten a n t b e  in creased ;

W H E R E A S , the B o a rd  o f  P o lice  C o m m issio n ers  h as d eter­
m in ed  th at the A ffirm ativ e  A ctio n  P la n , as proposed  by  the 
C h ie f  o f  P o lice , is su b stan tia lly  re la ted  to  the o b jec tiv e  o f 
rem ed y in g  the effects o f  p rio r d iscrim in atio n ;



257a

W H E R E A S ,  the B o a rd  o f  P o lice  C o m m iss io n e rs  has 
receiv ed  su b stan tia l ev id en ce th at the A ffirm ativ e  A ctio n  P lan  
w as su bstan tia lly  re lated  to  the o b jectiv es o f  im proved  law 
e n fo rcem e n t;

W H E R E A S ,  th e  B o a rd  o f  P o lice  C o m m iss io n e rs  has 
d eterm in ed  th at a ch iev in g  the o b jec tiv es  o f  im proved  law 
e n fo rcem e n t;

W H E R E A S , the B o a rd  o f  P o lice  C o m m issio n ers  has d eter­
m in ed  th a t ach iev in g  the o b jectiv es  o f  rem ed y in g  the effect o f  
p ast d iscrim in atio n  req u ire  the im p lem en ta tio n  o f  certa in  p ro ­
m o tio n al ra tio ;

W H E R E A S ,  the B o a rd  o f  P o lice  C o m m iss io n e rs  has 
receiv ed  su bstan tia l ev id en ce an d  statistics ten d in g  to show 
th a t a 50/50 p ro m o tio n a l ra tio  w ill im p rov e the law  en force­
m en t cap ab ility  o f  the D e tro it  P o lice  D e p a rtm e n t;

W H E R E A S , the B o a rd  o f  P o lice  C o m m issio n ers  has co n ­
clu ded  th a t a  50/50 ra tio  is the m ost reason ab le  m ethod  o f 
ach iev in g  the goal in  ord er to in su re p ro m o tio n a l op p ortu nity  
to all person s in  the D e tro it  P o lice  D e p a rtm e n t to the ran ks o f 
serg ean t an d  lieu ten an t;

W H E R E A S , the B o a rd  o f  P o lice  C o m m issio n ers  has co n ­
clu ded  th at the 50/50 ra tio  is the m ost reaso n ab le  m ean s av ail­
ab le  to  co rre ct the h arsh  effects o f  p ast d iscrim in atio n ;

W H E R E A S , the B o a rd  o f  P o lice  C o m m issio n ers  has co n ­
cluded th at the 50/50 ra tio  serves to en h an ce  p u blic  safety by 
im p rov in g  law  en fo rcem e n t;

W H E R E A S , the B o a rd  o f  P o lice  C o m m issio n ers  has been  
assured  by the C h ie f  o f  P o lice  th at all p ersons recom m end ed  
for p ro m o tio n  to the ran ks o f  sergean t and  lieu ten an t are 
su bstan tia lly  eq u ally  qu alified  to  p erfo rm  the jo b  for w hich 
they  are  b e in g  selected ;



258a

W H E R E A S , the B o a rd  o f  P o lice  C o m m iss io n ers  w ishes to 
ad op t and in co rp o ra te  by  re feren ce  the w ritten  p re sen ta tio n  o f  
all ex h ib its , d ocu m en ts , m in u tes o f  its m eetin g  w h ere in  it 
d elib erated  the p ro m u lg atio n  and ad op tion  o f  th is P la n ;

W H E R E A S , the B o a rd  o f  P o lice  C o m m iss io n ers  h as d eter­
m in ed  that the p ro g ram  as d escribed  and the C h ie f s  re co m ­
m en d atio n s w ill ach ieve the o b jectiv es  as provid ed  for in  the 
w ritten  p resen tatio n  in  as fa ir  a m a n n e r as possib le  for all 
co n cern ed ;

W H E R E A S , the B o a rd  o f  P o lice  C o m m issio n ers  d eter­
m in es at th is tim e that an  en d -g oal o f  50  %  B la ck  officers a t the 
ran k s o f  sergean t and  lieu ten an t is ap p ro p ria te  in  o rd er to 
m e e t the o b jectiv es o f  the A ffirm ativ e  A ctio n  P la n  su b ject to  a 
rad ica l shift o f  the d em o g rap h ic  com p o sitio n  o f  the C ity  o f  
D e tro it  o r som e o th er u n fo rseen  facto r th at m ark ed ly  alters 
the c ircu m stan ces;

W H E R E A S , d evelop m en t o f  a  jo b  re la ted , v alid ated  and 
ra ce -n e u tra l p ro m o tion al m odel is essen tia l to b a rr in g  d is­
cr im in a tio n  in  the fu tu re an d , th erefo re , to a ch iev in g  a  te rm i­
n a tio n  o f  the A ffirm ativ e  A ctio n  P lan ;

W H E R E A S , the B o a rd  o f  P o lice  C o m m issio n ers  is o f  the 
op in ion  th at a jo b  re lated , valid ated  and  racia lly -n eu tra l 
p ro m o tio n a l m odel fo r p ro m o tion s to  the ran k s o f  sergean t 
and  lieu ten an t is essen tia l to the p ro p er fu n ctio n in g  o f  the 
D e p a rtm e n t;

W H E R E A S ,  the B o a rd  o f  P o lice  C o m m iss io n e rs  has 
receiv ed  legal advice from  its cou nsel that the A ffirm ativ e  
A ctio n  P la n  is law ful;

W H E R E A S , the B o a rd  o f  P o lice  C o m m issio n ers  has been  
in form ed  that it is u n d er a legal o b lig atio n  to rem ed y  the 
effects o f  the D e p a rtm e n t’s p rio r u nlaw ful p ractices ; and



259a

W H E R E A S , the B o a rd  o f P o lice  C o m m issio n ers has been  
assured  by  its cou nsel th at th ere  are no ex istin g  legal im pedi­
m en ts to  the ad op tion  o f  the A ffirm ativ e  A ction  P lan  as 

d escribed .

T H E R E F O R E ,  B E  I T  R E S O L V E D  B Y  T H E  B O A R D  O F  
P O L I C E  C O M M I S S I O N E R S  T H A T :

1. T h e  C h ie f  o f  P o lice  is au th orized  and in stru cted  to take 
A ffirm ativ e  A ctio n  to p ro m o te  ind iv iduals from  P erso nn el 
O rd ers 7 7 -5 2 7  and 7 7 -5 2 8 , p u rsu ant to the A ffirm ative A ction  
R e so lu tio n  adopted  by  this B o a rd  on  J u ly  3 1 , 1 9 7 4 , and rea f­
firm ed  on  D e ce m b e r  2 8 , 1 9 7 6 , A u g u st 4 , 1977  and , also S e c ­
tio n  7 -1 1 4  o f  the C h a rte r  o f  the C ity  o f  D e tro it  w hich  perm its 
the C h ie f  o f  P o lice  to pass ov er ind iv iduals on  the eligibility  
reg ister  a fter  the C h ie f  o f  P o lice  files, as he has d on e, w ritten  
reason s a ccep tab le  to  this B o a rd .

B E  I T  F U R T H E R  R E S O L V E D  T H A T :

2. A n  en d -g oal o f  5 0 %  B la ck  officers at the ran k  o f  ser­
g ean t and lieu ten an t is ap p ro p ria te  at this tim e in  ord er to 
m eet the o b jectiv es o f  the A ffirm ativ e  A ctio n  P la n , su b ject to a 
rad ica l shift o f  the d em og rap h ic  com p o sitio n  o f  the C ity  o f 
D e tro it  o r som e o th er u n fo rseen  facto r th at m arked ly  alters 

the c ircu m stan ces.

B E  I T  F U R T H E R  R E S O L V E D  T H A T :

3 . T h e  A ffirm ativ e  A ctio n  P la n  for p ro m o tion  to the ranks 
o f  serg ean t an d  lieu ten a n t will te rm in a te  w hen the end -goal is 

a tta in ed .

B E  I T  F U R T H E R  R E S O L V E D  T H A T :

4 . T h e  D e p a rtm e n t is d irected  to develop , as soon as possi­
b le , a  jo b  re lated , v alid ated  and racia lly -n eu tra l p ro m o tion al 
m od el for the ran ks o f  serg ean t and  lieu ten an t.



260a

W H E R E A S , this C o u rt d esires to  ad op t an d  ap p ro ve th at 
reso lu tio n  th rou g h  O rd er:

W H E R E A S , this C o u rt b y  ad op tin g  the reso lu tio n  o f  the 
B o a rd  o f  P o lice  C o m m issio n ers  estab lish in g  th e  te rm in a tio n  
p lan  h ereb y  approves o f  the p ro m o tio n a l p lan  in  the D e tro it  
P o lice  D e p a rtm e n t for p ro m o tio n s to  th e  ra n k  o f  lieu ten an t 
an d  u n til su ch  en d -g oal is ach ieved .

T H E R E F O R E :

I T  I S  H E R E B Y  O R D E R E D  A N D  A D J U D G E D  th at the 
B o a rd  o f  P o lice  C o m m issio n ers  reso lu tio n  estab lish in g  an 
en d -g o a l o f  5 0 %  B la ck  officers at the ra n k  o f  lieu ten an t is 
ap p ro p ria te  in  ord er to m eet the o b jectiv es  o f  the A ffirm ativ e  
A ctio n  P la n  an d  is con sisten t w ith  this C o u r t ’ s O rd e r  p rev i­
ou sly  en tered  O c to b e r  1, 19 7 9 .

I T  I S  F U R T H E R  O R D E R E D  A N D  A D J U D G E D  that 
the m eth od  o f  p ro m o tio n  p u rsu an t to S e ctio n  7 - 1 1 4  o f  the C ity  
C h a r te r , is ap p ro p ria te  and  con sisten t w ith  this C o u r t ’s 
ru lin g .

I T  I S  F U R T H E R  O R D E R E D  A N D  A D J U D G E D  that 
the A ffirm ativ e  A ctio n  P la n  fo r p ro m o tio n  to the ra n k  o f  
lie u te n a n t will te rm in ate  w hen the en d -g oal is a tta in ed  o r  u ntil 
the fu rth er ord er o f  th is C o u rt.

I T  I S  F U R T H E R  O R D E R E D  A N D  A D J U D G E D  that 
the P la n  for co n tin u ed  im p lem en ta tio n  o f  the v o lu n tary  A ffir­
m ativ e  A ctio n  P la n  w ith the D e tro it  P o lice  D e p a rtm e n t is 
h ereb y  approved  and that the C ity  o f  D e tro it , th rou g h  the 
D etro it Police D ep artm ent, is directed to continue im plem enta­
tio n  o f  the P lan  in  all resp ects and  a cco rd in g  to the R e so lu tio n .

I T  IS  F U R T H E R  O R D E R E D  A N D  A D J U D G E D  th at 
the C ity  o f  D e tro it  is d irected  to develop , as soon as p ossib le , a 
jo b  re la ted , v alid ated  and  rac ia lly -n eu tra l p ro m o tio n a l m odel 
for the ran k  o f  lieu ten an t.



261a

I T  I S  F U R T H E R  O R D E R E D  A N D  A D J U D G E D  that 
the p ro m o tio n a l system  p u rsu an t to the form  d escribed  in  the 
R e so lu tio n  re m a in  in  full effect u n til its pu rposes are achieved  
o r  u n til the fu rth er O rd e r  o f  th is C o u rt.

I T  I S  F U R T H E R  O R D E R E D  A N D  A D J U D G E D  th at a 
Ju d g m e n t shall b e  en tered  on  b e h a lf  o f  all defend ants and 

in terv en in g  d efen d an ts.

I T  I S  F U R T H E R  O R D E R E D  A N D  A D J U D G E D  that 
th is O rd e r  su persedes an y  p rovision  g ov ern in g  p rom otions 
from  the ra n k  o f  serg ean t to lieu ten a n t w hether in corp orated  
in  an  a g reem en t b etw een  the p arties or otherw ise.

I T  I S  F U R T H E R  O R D E R E D  A N D  A D J U D G E D  that 
th e  p la in tif f  D e tro it  P o lic e  L ie u te n a n t ’ s an d  S e rg e a n t s 
A sso cia tio n  p ay the in terv en in g  d efen d a n t’s reason ab le  a tto r­

n e y ’s fees.

I T  I S  F U R T H E R  O R D E R E D  A N D  A D J U D G E D  that 
each  p arty  w ill b e a r  its ow n costs in this C o u rt.

/s/________ D amonJ .  K eith __________

C irc u it  Ju d g e , sittin g  b y  d esignation  
as a  d istrict ju d g e

A  T R U E  C O P Y
C L E R K ,  U. S . D I S T R I C T  C O U R T  
E A S T E R N  D I S T R I C T  O F  M IC H IG A N

B Y ______________ L . B ehringer______________

D E P U T Y  C L E R K  

N O V . 17 , 1980