Certificate of Service and Affidavit of Mailing for Supreme Court Brief for Appellees

    I '-t

I

| 1e82
I

lol Dls.

I

lcurrent
hom ln.
[entfat.
llled de
lose or

[ent or
ly test
Dhat lt
fek tn
la tnc ,

ruurt.
[trat tt
pest lr
[otlng .

been '

la tne
[e de-.
[cMll.
I and
lh clr.
frtcut;.
hlna.,

'June 9, 1982 s 6509
What do you have? Where are You? You
know, lt ls the old thlng we do ln law school:
You bala.nce and you bal&nce but ultlmately
how do you b&lal)ce? What ls the core
value? o'

There ls no "core value" under the
CpmsLanges that coUld prOperly be the I the present lntent teSt lS Crltlcal if the I rrrErt.r! uu Lvrs voru'

..-r^- +h^ r-+^-+ r r^-- t- -^^+r^- o r- i^ --:,;fi-" "--i iresults test except for the value of

r

CONGRESSIONAL RECORD - SENATE

been avr

equal electoral results for defined ml'
nority groups, or proportional repre'
sentation. There is no other ultlmate

more convtnced I am d;i fi;;;i al't: /ql ttrreshold citerlon bv which s facb
ii;;i"n-b;&;;n th" iiit"irl-r6;d;;f fin-der ..can evaluate the evldence

a"A ail resutts stendard ls even great-l before lt'
;;dil iilGn ;f proportlonal ren-l Whtle there have been a number.of
iu.i"t"1ton. ftre reat-ts:ire ls whetherl attempts to define such an ultlmate.
;; nrt wt aie gotng to define civil [ evaluatlve standard' more problns ln'
itgt G tn ttrls country by a clear, deter- | quiry lntir the meaning of these stand'
minaUtC standard-through the rule of I ards during the Subcommlttee on the
i;;, ; lt were-or by a standard that I Constttutlon hearings lnvariably de-
lite;auv no one can artlculate.ec I generated lnto either lncreaslngly ex'

ffi*or younger, one of the Na- I Mv 6bservatlon ls ttrst the r.esults i pllclt peferenees to the numerlcal snd
6on's foremost authoriilee on law of I test-has absolutely no coherent or !ln- ! statisttcal comparlsons that are the
;rta;;;. testified before the Constltu- I derstandable meanlng beyond the I tools of proportlonal representatlon/

-Ti5Tessor Younger, one of the N8- I My obsen atlon ls thst the nesruB I pllclt Felerences f,o [Ile numensal Eno
6on's foremost authoriilee on law of I test-has absolutely no coherent or !ln- ! statisttcal comparlsons that are the
;rta;;;, testified before the Constltu- / derstandable meanlng beyond the I tools of proportlonal representatlon/
i,fon StiUtomr"ittee and concluded: I stmple notlon of proportlonal repre' I quota analysls or else tlre -wholly. unln'

6nnosl.ton r.o rhe rnrent teet has beenl sentetton by race. howcver vehement'1 structtve statements ol the sort that

un:jI
l,?i;f
fi I't
dtdl

.t'
need

oi
esIr

imuit '
even ,,,

and'

I

'' oba,
.{

Opposttion to the tntent teet has beenl sentetton by race. ^howcv-er 
v_"Le39Tt I structtve statements ol the sort that

ooiti.rr. To enect tL the Ersument soes, lrl tv tts proponents deny thts. Illttmate' i "you know discrlmlnatlon when you
-lo 

mcxe lt dlfltcult or even lmposslble tol ty, the results teet brlngs to the law I see lt."ee
prove I vioration A practrcar:i:45:$frSl 

;i;m"r *ffi,?it'rH'E: ?i 

"11; 

i -Ili, H?**[.*,""1#5*T"""""1irure but one whlch Eugger
urkers lack prscucar **'l:*Tj*tt$ 

I tl;iqll_rillE1r".-f#**?j._ll: j lli[:ri','t"Ihiid;:tl, ilitf r*-{-rgrylduct oI llticstlon. SP€nd aduct or ,,sa,on' Dl'enq 
I iiil"'i"#rir"";fiil i NAlcP, ln describlng dlscrtmlnatlon i 

"fi,;;lly- ", euia.nc" wh'tsoever tocrlmlnal court ln the land
.on trtal? Almost always, r'qri"iir"i ;; d;""t I under the results test: 

^ i commuirtties tn evaluating the legallty
;. . tn neartv a'tt crtrirtnat lttlsatlon and tn I Ltke the Supreme Court Jttstlce.sutg *boql i a,nd constttuttonality of thelr govern-
;;ilivr.iiiiirc;irililft;;ffi;;;; th; i; no'ii,-"eii'nnii;rmernotbe -qble 

to denne tt 1 ;;;;firrd;;66 .i tney tait pro-
iir,ir -i.itvt tt.l" -so.ier^.T- 

r_ !1-"r'luutrmowttw-henr.geelt'"I' , ,_ -_,_,- l;;;t"""1-r"i.-"rJ"t"til.,l--ina tt- ar-

;ffir: ri:.r;##:r"ri;if"fl*rffi.*l ,*T:iillT3iffixffih.Hki#"-fi i :lir.*{***ir-"-":nll,:*i:txthat it ts an unduly diffic
iiii'ir'l" 'i', on 

'iire r"r"r;:#"$'H.i xriJ*Hni:JulH.F,3;rlliinr';*IH$[l#,:brfl:x1ls*x,"f3l";have worked uP several rul
ln ferretlng out lnt€nL Intent my !e h: I :l::-^-.-.,^-
lerred from what x saia i'oi'ix-ailnre uui; representatlon' ErrEU'v,r

wh8txSatddoesno!concludethet!rqulry:l:11gl9_ol.eolthecountless.,obJectlve
,ury mBy ftnd thet X's lntentlon was the op.;lJudges or Jurles evaluate tl"";;;it1; I factors of dlscrlmtnatlon"'ror I belteve

posrte or what was 8atd. or x'! tntent marll of ctrcumstances on tt e "u#tl'll lflLggt.ll"t :,P.Y,T" 
ftr" S:|,t"*:t;il",1li"hii'i"'Jfr if,:1ril,fi"i#ffi;iffiiliit "[iiJI'?TiII *"& ii]"",riIti"cEi lcrimtnatron wourd be estabushed

tn""i"i,ii,i-. .l;";il;6;h'l ri, ot i* il ;;i-';'',r tnrerence or ratenc titilfrr'i* l:r"g:t !h"."_T]tE E{ b}l q,_llg_11f
aiii'i'ruq"ii" i;rno*nr guri'"'rn tire to'rliil 

;3:l #-*liiln**,Ur"l*J,Tlii ,ffilTlhlff:,"1".1x:i$ffi!Ift
oI someone'g expr€gs ack
the offendlnS lntent; and

ii-inis"a'lion :r*'rr.gs"r;',;;s1";i[f$i,ltfft].;:l,t1,.'.*H,H"lF}i i[:L"s*"Hid;':}Hii#.ff1*B:Jthe nearly universal ab
smoking gun. . . lawyers t

ffiii.T'$'til'i;; ili;li;,'i"#I"'ijffi;';"i"lr ffi;;aa n; to en r"i"s"""i:r*:li i"Hi,""::,::l:*,j#l^tllti];;:"$trno particular trouble applylng lt.e s 
11 to arcrmtnitqf " That ls thr

r conclude rhar provrng-rntent ts "otlii"v*inlch evtdencu r" "rai,iii"o-r" l91Pllll-"llt-1t-c9y:31:1ft-:tt":":f*:
, ,,.L"i'11'i".""11i,11TJ"'i'5 U$rT,ffili;hffi*ffjl;XHfm,*l il"tH$:ti""H",S:,:'3-"$,imf":i-:ltiii Federal court Jrtctge to make findlngs I such evidence rlses to e lev
i ffi Siu'".!i'li'i""i# ii.ii;"il##;t.#![;iirr;f"]l;i;=r=ql[il;";' :];-X f$:".":",f":*ti: fi'31?,:"iil":hli:
l il"i,i."!r!i!3,i,$iil1T3e!:""'""ffi l,tl,:iTli#:"gl,I$f]$."*ig"$i: that lt poses &n lnsurmountable stand' Ehg evLfenEE-1S-EeI@-Jl,he courE- lwuurq vE dPPrvPrrou' uv rlvuv

'. r- - -+--r^-. ,'-.-^Til-=iitl-;i-riffiffi-+'ff;;- I dence . . . deserlbed here? So Iong as
: ard ln sectlon 2 Cases. It iS a standard hphether lt be the tOtSUW of tfrc clr' I ucrrut I I r uEDVrrutu rrtrEi uv rvus @
jthattheNationn,""r*Lv..r';;ililE..'l1!9l9'iI.o-*1l31ldj:l."^,31::li?ijI.
i [iTr,U'i,i1J.,"i:ffii irlrnll, *;u'; ql g_"t":,,11.i-".,111-b^" 1o-*lll*i9-1ol*t];ilh,Ji",i;ff";^trii.,,il,i'?."jit?*iTtfrJtrod.uctnsevldence.Thestandardthat,--^- #-- -"iH#ffi would be fashioned would necessarily

of
or

re-

lntn"-
I a"'
fcum-
imay

may
lenc-
Ar-

lical
irres

been satified in litigation. Most lmpor' be fashloned on a case-by+ase baisls.

ecluivalenL to a shorvinr.gf tlisn11.a19 l;;i;; jury . . . under rhe resutts srandard near-total disagreement as far as

l3lll'iilJ'"liiiJl-X'i iiei$el:','l#: ffi'ft};;fii ;ii"-;;,il:ffii".x"!i
communltyoughttou.i.iii'iiiiiiii"."?|substitutethearbitrarydlscretlonofcivilrightsstaiutes,,#;;;;.;;;;u;lll:*::.,FJ'fl"':':j-.t},?"I3'^"lll1*ii';
il,',lli|'5iili iiii#'.i; iili.Y,ii"ttii", T" 1.,"^,ih:,iii'"'i"'#";';";oi;#il;; i':"':'ii;i: 19r1,-*.te-.or 

raw esiabrished under the
ifte aU.cncJ of intent or ptrrpose to le:rttv'isthe.ra.tionale.ultlmatelvlslam.gra llnte-nttest'
<tiscriminate. To speak of .,ciiscrimina- 

lnre^text or is it a legltlmate ""Y_tl1t^IitlTj I ttre confusion introduced by the re-
tion" in any otrrer tcrm.ito q::t^:l1 l?l*T'1',[i.?,X'.1,1]i::l]}11'fiflT$,,}?: hI]..::::,:?^l*'.'t?i""S-:XT",:te', 

tI
irnpact-is to transform'tire meanine li"'.:,?h'.'t?-.rn}i'$|'rlif;"?;'H'"'1il';#J fo"t oj,the most basic questions in-
of 

'tl-,..on."pt beyond a.ll recosnition li"r.,"iotto-line.you justha,ei;';;;;rt; lvoJyc.$.ln.the analys.is: o99s tfe'l1e'.
an6 to crnbl_.r.k ,pop a course of con- loiii * .".io, of factors snd the p.ou-t"* ls, Isults" tcst-yrroposed in se-c-tion--2.*91"
cluct rvig"r consequences thag may be at, lonce you have assregated out those factors: f the same thing as the "effects" test in

l+,i.,.,

ir'

f,t

Ii
U

'!'
I

I

lJ

';i

I

1
,l

ll
it

iil
,il
,l
I

ii



s 6610 CONGRESSIONAf, . RBCORD' - SENATE

slon-and turmotl-tn a ha,ndful of na'rqeanlng: r I nrurr urs uurltrvu-ur o "..^r- .L- -^!^.r^--*t- *-i tlons around the world'rot There

sectton E? Desplte the funde,mentatf ttre ProPosqq change'ln sectlon 2 ol
iririi**de;i thG mstter, thiie tras\ ttre Votlrng Rlghtr Act wogld lead to
i-e-6n- 

-arlagriement amoric wltness { wldespread.court'ollered :lpI9pl1f!9l'
iiUdi *rl",rli- on tnfs. f[eir:eseniaiive I al repiesentatlon." Put elmplv' prop-or'

SsusENsnENxER, one of 
-inJ 

arctrttects I tlonal represe.ntqtlo.n ryf"T- !9 -o-Plll;i itre iesutts t'est tn tirJ-EoGL, tCsu:{ ot sovernment whlch adopts the ractal
i[d Uefore the Subcommlti"e ,in ttre I or ethntc group es the prtmsrv untt ol
^^-^lrlrrlrar --A clafori i nolltlcnl renresentatlon and sppor'6o"rlii"Uooanaitatea: I pollttcal repres€ntBtlon- a1td sppo!'
I thtnk that we 

"ru 
.rtiittn" hatrs ln at'l [tons.se"!: t" 9199P-t[,Pdt3.:1"ill;

tempgns ro see I srmrlcanl airiii:i"J r. 
-"f tns to the comparatlve- numerlcal

ieiujG tist or an efficts tsstr.roe I strength of these groups.ro? The con-

Mr. Chambers, representlns thel cent- of proportlott{-:,trpJo:l}l1tt-o}
Niii,bp-ii[ar aeiense--'r-r]id,-i-" it i| has been experlmented.wlth-often ac'

other hand, toteuv aGilir-"d- t-tr-Gl comnantet E^::'b*Ttl1t-19:.tgdl*

Junc 9,1

E state of effalrs whlch ls loglcsUy
leseUy unacceptable.

Thus launched tn segrch ol a
lnvolvtng results, lt seeml that court
would have to solve the Problem ot

measurlng that remedy bY dlstrlbu
tlonal concepts ol equlty whlch are ln'
dlstlnguishable from the concept ot
proportlonaltty. The numerlcal contrt'
tution of the group to the age'eleglblc
voter group wlll almost certabrly dlo
tate an entltlement to offlce ln stmller
proportlon.rrr It ls my oplnlon that ll
lhe-substantlve nature of a sectlon I

Qursnor. Whst tB the relstlonshlP be'| ururs
tween the resulrs tesr r" ,"."tii"ri-i-iifi itrlf seems to be general agreement that
iir"i,tl, t*tl" recuon s? - - - 

| the Jramers of our Federal Govern'
"'4ff"s;;"r;ev arJ"ot the same tcst. . .l ment reJected offlclsl recognlilon of

Quittton. In oiher words, the expertencel hterest Sroups as a basls for represen'
of ihe courts wlth sectlon 5 would not bel tatlon and lnstead chose the tndlvldual
relevant tn det€rmlnlng how sectlon 2 bl ," the prtmary unlt of government.rot
likelv to be lnterpreted, 

^. ,o" I i am a6eply c-oncerned with this tssue
cHAruBERs. Thot ls correcr.'|u' ... .. I iince ttre-pioposea change In seeilon 2
I!Is. Martinez, representlng tn9 i could have the consequence of brlng-

Mexican-American Legal Defense a,ncl I tns about a substantlal change ln the
Educatlon Fund, however, sta,tecl: ' fuirdamental onganlzatlon of Amerlcan

clalm ls changed to proof of a partlcu'
lar electoral result, the prtnclples ol
equlty wtll lead to wldespread estsb
llshment of proportlonal represenh'
tlon.

Vlrtually the sa,me concluslon cu
stated by numerous wltnesses who etr
peared before the Subcommlttee on

the Constitutlon. Attorney Genersl

rll
Bo

tlc
lrt
?o
cht
clu
qur
tor

ut(
of
lol

l,
DE
l!
o0r

tUnder the new testl any votlng l&v or
procedure tn the country whlch produca
electlon results that lall to mtrror the popu'

Smlth told the subcommittee:

latlon's makeup ln a partlcular communlty
would be vulrlerable to legal ch&Ilenge' ''
It carrted to lts loglcal concluslon' propot'

tlonal representatton or quotas would be thc
end result.r r'

Asststant Attorney General ReYn'
olds testlfled:

The conttnulns vttaltty of sectlon 2 .9e:t .pottttcal soclq!&_
pends upon an amendment passed Uy thgrF:-
House rhar wourd permrt jiiiririi"rfiaiisi iifi *-1: i:t-'-'-t-t,i*^I*:l::",o::.^'**^-
secrion 2 vtolsgons "po',i".Joi'ii';fi;e[il Inu analysls of th-ls-lssue
cir-f""to.V effects oriesut.-ts of votlng prac-i I wtth th-e lanS-uaS^e of . the p
qces.ro{ i} change ln sectlon 2. Exlsttng sectlon

served: il to vottnr-.- or standard' p"s9!!99,'-.or-Pt1ej

Professor Cox found htmself tn dts''l provldesthat: \
agreement on thls polnt when he ob'rf No votlns quallJtcaHon 9f.,!Tt99{t-t!l1e

rf you mean the effects test as tnterprehqll g.'::^"h"tl be tmposed or applled bv 8nv

byrhecourtswuh*r".t"ii#friffi i',1-"llt:-.*,f.o":'#rt$"*ttTu[,03?'r,ll
iyi""ne'#,#*'i:'#"FtH'tl?'ri6rr!t&ii[i.:S]!.l:,"-yii'iltx;Lne rsul* !6u ur Dwurv''' ll color or tn contraventlon of the Suarantee!

Durhg the course oI boththe E9!Ee il set lorth ln eectlon {(fx2).rro
and Senate hearlnss ."T lhe-Ygt^Eq I The Senate amendment ellmlnates
Rtghts Act, appro.xlmetgty !$l "{_!ll: I *,'" i,-o"ai;6 deny;itbddge" and sub-

Ii"1?.,ill"tn#ii"l3",liil"'1,,'[o,uffi ]il:i',hr*"q:*$*"f"TH::y#effi
f 11*"$,1*,1XTf ,I?JtiE""A"tHe[it'Fili;3ny":*i*fl S*$1f :ff ilHI,ff;
test ln sectlon S. and h.uL.^"*tllljl: 

I 
--ffi. 

3lt-z 
"rru 

,or*J.""uon r or the Bcr
Judtctal history of. tntf,Tr9t{lgl I t""iil['ii"""11ff8;?;i"at,mm"to.v
under sectlon 5 was relevanU the o-ttler I ;i,1p*"- ;-Gtdi 1j not requtred tn caser
half argued that lt meant somethlng l[r;i;niGaertneDnovlrlon.irr
substantlslly or totallv 9$l1ntrTt'l I Ut a"" the current lenguage, an con.
Given the t4hereni.unc,._{pE!y--"qgtll Irtir:ii;-ui-tileE"p}"me-coirl rn the
the results test tn the flrst p-lec€, l!_t" | fioiiG AsC;; vlotiitton of secuon 2 re.
htghly lnstrirctlve that, 8o 

-much:o.: I i'"-f""-, pt""i of-afscrfrnfnatory purpose
tlnulng confuslon could exrst oq 8l ;;i.;;L- rhe. genete Uttt chirnces thef,tnumg conluslon courq exrs.{, "1 ,1 I or lrtent. Ttre genete blll changes the

$ffi:Ti'tre:Ef ef.?'*,i:$::f#31ffiJ#ff l"it*5"1g,'1",fl f a'",T,:
the sectlon 5 effecta . .. I h ;h;-verv esence of the clalm f,ed

In summary, lt ls mv b9ueltltat lll Gd-e; iechon- Z- necessartty chanses
would be a sra,ve mlslale for.C^on-sressl in"'?;;aUt-opttons oi courts upon
to overturn the decls.lon-9,{jl" .!};l ir6"i 6i-"-ilcirii-z vrorailon. rn ihe
qrgqre c9g{E_cl!y,9! Ygll}:qflPll iilii,"t struauon, e court ca', prouae
Bolden..such an actlon,would 

",lr:"t^l[ il;a;an;6-nilav merirv by'declar-
major transf ormatlon la !E -Iry- _.o_r I ft 1ilt""pos;i,fu t aisirrrirrnatory
sectlon 2 a^nd would overtum a..Yo.rk'l"iifo"-voi?t eince thi e'sence of th-e
able and settled test -for g:P!Uv_T-c I li,iiitry;r"ltu-rs;-dtni io freedom
dlscrlmlnatlon. The results^testln^8911 iioiri--fio;8f"Ut lmot-tvated otftclal
uon 2 would brlng to !!9 yglllql;;6".'no*-erE'unati ttri-proposCd
Rrghts 4ct e{-r entlrelv new gr.l"gplfj I ;[il;; ltl ;ectrdn i, the rttir 6srab-
clvU rlehts that would.crqale cP.l{!l'l irr,[-"-.i-t"lto-e perttciitar resrilt and so,
ston hlhe taw and, tt\91v,-l"lJg !l-93- | iii6rrL[ri, -rih ilre wul behqnr"iti

iiit"l*iiili:"ill'1Tu?.",'Jl,*'$'?.?f i:l:g,l,lilll3mff*t*r""ruSf;t:
,bE. ---4oi-tnetr iqulti, dowers to itructure

B.PRoPoRaIoNALREPRESTTaATIoIiBYR Ct- I eleCtoral system' tb prOVlde a res,lt
Perhaps the most tmportant and dls' I tnet wtU Le resporulve to the new

turbtng-lssue brought to ltght durtng Ifif6g.rrr Otherwlse, the new rlght
the hea,rhss was the lssue of whether'woUa be wlthout an elfectlve remedy,

A very real prospect lg thet thls Emen0
ment could well lead on to the use of quotrt
ln the electoral prooess ' ' ' s'e ere deepl,
concerned that thlB lsnguegie qdll be cotr
strued to requlre governmental unlts to
present compeUlnli Justlflcatlon. Ior rnt
votlns system whtch does not leed to
portlonal representstloL I r'

Professor llorocdtz test[led
under the results test: I

what the court rrc gotng to hBvc to do
to look at the proportlon ol Elnorlty
ln a glven localttY 8nd look ot the
tlon ol mtnorlty representatlves tn a 3

locallty. ThBt 18 where they wtU begln t
tnqulry; th8t b very llkely wherc they
end thetr lnqutrY, and when they do
we wlll have ethnlc or reclal
ItY.t t c

Professor BtshoP has wrltten
gubcommlttee:
It 6eem! to me that the tntent ol

rrnendment ls to tnsure thrt blacks or
bera ol other mlnorlty groups ar'e

I

i
i

I

proportlonal representatlorL Il' for
ple, blscks Ere 20 Percent ol the PoP
ot s Stste, Elspanlcs 15 percent, snd Indlru
2 percent; then st least 20 petcent ol thc
mimbers of the leglslature must be
15 percent lllspanlc, and 2
Indlen.rI

Profess'or Abraham has stated:
Only those sho llve ln t drer'n world

latl to percelve tho berlc purpose snd
8nd tnevltablc result ol the new lectloo X Il
lr to ertablkh r pattcrn ol proportlonel nD
rcsentrtlon,\now based uDon race-but
l! to ray, lL'?-perhsps at r l8t€r momentb
tlme upon Bender. or rellSlon. or
Ity, or even age.rr'

A slmllar concluslon-thst the
-cept of prorrortlonal representetlon
race ls the Inevltable result ol
change ln sec6on 2-Ipas reached by r
large number of addlttonal wltnessa
Bnd observelB.m.r



-:
i.
I

,lunc 9, 1982
(See attachment.d)

AttecmvrA
Srr.Ecwo Quorra or Sucrror 2 rm

PRoPonrron L nlPBrsElrrarror
"Ttle theory of .thc dssentlng optnlon

testl . .. appeer! to be thst
caery Doltttcal gxoup or at least cvery such
3roup that ls ln thc nlnoflty hrr r (edersl
cottltltutlonal rtght to elect candldetes tn
Drcportlon to lts membcn . . . The Egurl
hotcctlon Clausc docr not rcqulre DrcDor.
tlonel reprerentatton as e,n lmp€rEtlye ol Do-
llucel orgonlzatton."-Us. Suprehe Coult,
loMkv. Bolden <lS8O,

"The fa.t that membeE ol r raclal or lan.
lueSe mlnorlty group have not beeD elected
ln numbers equal to the Sroup's prop6rtlon
ol the populatlon . . . would bc htghly rele.
vent [under the proposed arrendment.I"-
Eouse Report 97-22? (Votlng Rtghts Act)

"[Under the new testl a.ny votlng law or
procedure ln ttie country whtch pmducer
clectlon results that fall to mlrrof the popu.
latlon's make-up ln a partlcrrlar comraunlty
could be vulnerabte to lesEl
chsllenge . . . lf carrled to lts loeitcal c!n-
cluslon, proportlonal representatlon or
quotas would be the end result."-U.S, At-
tomey General \viUla,m French Smlth

"To overrule L}re Moblle declslon by stah
ute would be an extremely dangerous course
ol actlon under our form of government."-
Former U.S. Attorney General Grlfftn Bell

"A very real prospect is thet thls amcnd-
ment could well lead us to the use of quotas
In the clcctoral process . . . We are deeply
concerncd th:lt this langunge will be con-
strued to rcqrrlre goYcrrrrncrrtrl ltnlts to
present compclllng Justlflcotlon for any
votlng system whlch does not lead to pro-
portlonal represcntation."-Asst. Attorney
General (Civil Rishts) WlUiam Bradford
Reynolds.

"Blacks comprise one-thlrd of South Caro.
llan's populatlon and they deserve one-thlrd
of lts reprcscntatlon."-Rev. Jesse Jackson,
Columbla State, Octobcr 25, 1981
"The amendment must lnvarl&bly

operate . . . to create raclally dellned rrsrds
throughout much of the natlon and to
compel the worst tendencles toward race-
based alleglances and divlsions."-Prof. Wll-
llam Van Alstyne, Univ. of Callf. School of
lsw.

"The loglcal termlnal polnt of those chal-
lenges [to Mobllel ls that electlon dtstrlcts
must be dr&wn to glve proporttonal repre-
!€ntatlon to mlnorltles,"-Washlngton Post,
ADrll 28. 1980
"It seems to me that the lnt€nt of the

&endment ls to ensure that blacks or Eem.
ben of other mlnorlty groups ane eruured
proportlonal representatlon. lf, for exa.ra-
Dle, blacks are 20 Dercent of the populttlon
ol i State, Hlspenlc! l5 percent, a,nd Indtau
I pertent, the.D at teast 20 p€rcent of thc
E?mbers of the leglslature must be blrch,
It percent Hl8panlc and 2 percent
lndlan,"-hof. Jo8eph Blshop. Yale I.8w
School
."Ttre amendment ls lntended to reverse

the Supreme Court'B declslon ln Mobllc . . .
ll rdopted, thls Buthorlzes Federal courts to
tlqulre States to change thelr laws. to
ensure that'mlnorltles wlll be elected tn pro-
portlon to thelr numberg . . . Represente-
Uvq Bovernment doe8 not lmply proportlon.
d representatlon."-Dr. Walter Berns,
Amerlcan Enterprlse Instltute

"Unless we see e redlstrlctlng plan that
hu the posslblltty oI blacks havlng the
Drcbsblllty ol belng elected ln proportlon to
thLo populatlon ln South Carollna, se wlll
push h&rd for e new plan."-Dr.: W. F.
Olbson, Prbsldent, gouth Carollna NAACp .

'i "Only those who llve ln a dreaur world cart

CONGRESSIONAL,RE@RD -+ SENATB
end lnevltoble rerulC ol thc nes retlon 2: lt
ls to est8bltsh s psttcm ol Droportlonsl rer,-resentatlorL now bascd uDon noe-perhaps
at a later moment ln tlme upon gender or
rellglon or nstlqnEllty.";Prol Eenry Abra-
ham, Unlverslty ol Vlrglnlr

"I may atete uncqulvocr,lly for the
NAASP 8nd for thc Lcldershlp Conferpncc
on Clvll Rlghts t.}lat wG tro not loeklnS pro.
portlon8l reprcsentatloa . . . I thtnk therc
lr r btg dllferencc betsccn proportlond tep
resentatlon snd reprelcnbtlon tn the popu.'
latlon ln proportlon to tmlnorltyl popula.
tloll."-BrnJrmln Eookl Erecutlye Dlree-
tor, NAACP

"What the courtr rrc gotnS to h8ve to do
under the nee test lr to look at the propor-
tlon of mlnorlty votet! ln e glven locdlty
snd look.st the proportlon ol mlnorlty rep-
resentBtlves. Than k where they wlu b€ctrn
thelr lnqulry and that lr very llkely where
they will end thelr lnqulry. We wlll have
ethnlc, or raclal proportlonallty."-ProL
DonBld llorowlt4 Duke Unlverslty LBw
School

"It would b€ dtfflcult to tnaglne a polltt-
csl entlty contolnlnS r slgnltleant mlnorlty
populstlon thet was not represented propor-
tlonstely that would not be ln vlolatlon ol
the new 8ectlon."-hol. Edw8rd Erler, Na-
tlonal Humanltles Center

"[The results test would requlrel dlvldlng
the communlty lnto the varlous races and
ethnlc groups the law happens to cover and
trylng to provlde each wlth B representa-
tlve."-Wall Strect Journal, January lS,
1982

"Equirl Rcccss.''does not mcan equal re-
sults . . . [Undcr thc amcndmentl frropor-
tlonatc results have become the test of dls-
crlmlnatlon."-Dr, John Bunzel, Hoover In-
stltutlon (Stanf ord Unlverslty)

"The very language ol the amendment
proposed for Sectlon 2 tmports proporuonal
representetlon lnto the Act where lt dld not
exlst before."-Prof. Bsrry Gross, Clty Col-
lege of New York

"By makln8 sheer numerlcal outcome
'hlghly relevant' as to the legallty ol a pro-
cedure, the House blll moves to replace the
outcome of the votlng al the flnel srblter by
&nother standard-proportlonallty. Thls ls
not conslstent wlth democracy."-Prof. Ml-
chael L€vln, Clty College of New York

"The Alabama legislature tby lts dlstrlct-
lng proposall ls gotng on record saylng ln
1982 lt stUI does not feel 25 pereent of the
populatlon ol thts Stste chould oceupy 25
percent oI th6 responslbllltlea and obllga.
tlons ol thls leelsleture."-Al8bama Rep.
Thomas Reeq WashlnCton Post, June g,
1982

"The prool tol dtrcrlmlnetlon under the
amended sectlon 2, b thc nunbcr ol p€ople
who Bet elected."-U.8. Rep. Robert, Oarcla
(New York)

3. PNOPORTIOTAL RIFRIIEfrAIIOII A8 PI'DLIC
. llol.tct

My concluslon ls that lfoporilon&l
representatlon t8 the lnevltable result
of the proposed chenge ln secilon 2,
notwlthstsndlng the dlsclalmer, leads
the lnqulry to whether the edoptton of
6uch a system would be advlsable
policy. On thls polnt, the testlmony
was virtu8lly unatrlmou8 ln concluslon:
Proportlonal representatlon ls con-
trary to our po[tlcsl tradlilon and
ought not be accepted es a general
part of our system of Government at
any level.rro Professor Berns,.for ex.
ample, lndlcated.thet the framers con-
sldered the very questlon whlch I heve
address and reJected any system of
representatlon based on lnterest
group&, IIe testlfled: ,r. :.:, - ,

s 6511
Ileprerentetlvo government does not

lmply proportlonel representetlorl or any
verslon ol lt thst ls [kely to enhance Dloc
votlng by dlscretc group6, The framers ol
the Corutttutlon ttferred to such SrouDs as
"factlonr," rnd they dld thelr best to m[rt.
mlze thelr lnlluence.". . .

Whereas the intl-tedcrallsts called for
smEll dlltrlctr urq thcretorc. mrny Reprc.
lentruve!, thc fi.rrnrcrr.rltcd lor (ind 3ot)
lrrger dbtrlct! end lewer Reprelcntstlve&
They dld so a! r meanr ol encomparalng
wlthln each dlstrlct "a 'arerter varlety of
Dertlcs snd lnterests," thu! treelna thc
elected ReDr€sentstlver lrom rn exceastve
dependenc€ on Lhe unreftned and nanow
vlews that are llkely to be expreassd by par.
tlculsr 8roup8 of thelr constltuentr.tro

The testlmony o! Professor Erler
Bounded the same theme:

Nothlng could be more ellen to the Amerl.
can polltlcel trsdltlon thsn the ldee of pro-
portlonal representatlorl Proportlonal ref
resentatlon makes lt tnposstble for the rep-
res€ntetlve pro@slr to flnd e common
ground that transcends lactlonallzed lnter.
ests. Every modem Sovernment based on
the proportlonal aystem ls hlShly fraSment-
ed Bnd unstsble. The genlus of the Amerl-
caJr syst€m ls that lt requlres facttons and
lnterests to take an enlarged vlew ol thelr
oivn welfare, to see, as lt were, thelr own ln-
terests through the fllter of the common
good. In the Amerlcan system. because of lts
fluid electoral allgnments, a Representatlve
must represcnt not only lnterests that elect,
hlrn, but thosc who vote agalnst hlm as wcll.
That ls to 8ey, he must represent thc
common lnterest rather than eny pertlcular
or narrow lnterests. Thls ls the genlus of a
diverse country whose very electorBl lnstttu-
tlons-partlculsrly the polttlcal perty struc.
ture-mllltate Bgalnst the ldee ol propor.
tlonal representetlon. Proporttonal repre-
sentetlon brlngs narrow, partlcularlzed ln.
teresk to the fore and undermlnes the ne-
cesslty of compromise ln the lnterest of the
common Sood.rtr

I sdopt these vlews and belleve that
proportlonal representation ought to
be reJected &s undesirable publlc
pollcy totally apart from the constitu-
tional dlfflcultles that lt, ralses, and
the raclal consciousness that lt fosters.
Slnce lt has concluded that the pro-
posed ch&nge ln sectlon 2 will lnevita-
bly lead to the proportlonal represen-
tatlon a^nd that the dlsclalmer lan.
guage wlll not preveni thls result, I ne-
cesarlly 8nd flrmly conclude thet the
Senate arhendment to sectlon 2 should
be reJected by thls body.

FACTAL lXPLtCAflOrl
In addltlon to the serlous questlons

lnherent ln adoptlng eny leglslailon
whlch recognlzes lnterest groups a,s B
primary unlt of polltlcal representa-
tton, lt must be taken lnto account
that the partlcular group lmmedlately
lnvolved ls deflned solely on racial
Srounds. I belleve speclal cautlon ls ap-
proprlste when the enactment of Bny
race-based classlflcatlon ls contemplat-
ed end rlgorous analysls of potenHal
underslrable soclal consequences must
be undertaken.

The flrst problem encountered ls
slmply one of deftnttlon. Legtslailon
whlch tends to estebllsh representa-
tlon based on raclal group necessarily
poses the questlon of how pensorur

iii

i,:

it'

r ltt
ltt

II

to percelve the baslc thrust and purposc



s 6512
dhall be asslgned to or excluded from
thet group for politlcal pur?oses.
Recent history in this a^nd other na-
tlons suggests that the resolutlon of
such a question can be demeaning and
ultimately dehumanlzing for those ln-
volved. All too often the task of raclal
classificatlon tn and of ltself has re-
sulted in soclal tunnoll. At a mint-
nmm, the lssue of elassiflcation would
heighten raee eonsclousness and con-
ffibute to raee polarlzatlon. iAs profes-
sor Van Alstyne put tt. the proposid
change ln section 2 wlll lnvtta,bly
"compel the worst tendencles toward
race-based elleglences end dtvl-
slons." r28 Thls predlcted result ls tn
sharp confllct wlth the edmonltlons of
the elder Justle }larlan who v/rote ln
Plecsy

Ther€ tB Do enste here Ou Constttutlon ls
colorbllnd, 8nd nelther kno\r8 nor tolerates
chases rmong stdzen& . . . f1re bw.reg8rd8
Ean !s marr, End .tat6 rro acormt of hlg
8ut?ountltnga or ol hts color w'hErr hlr ctvll
rlghtr rreauGrailtcrd by the Eupreme las ol
the lrd are lnvohrEd.rt! .

More recently Justtce Stevens called
tJre very ott€npt to deflne quallfytng
tulalcharectcdrtfcr:

tElspltgrilrt to our'corrtltr$lonEl tdcals.
. . . trIltre ifatlotlal Go]tmmeilt tB toEoke
a'rerious etlort to al,eftne rrclal c-lascs by
cllttrlr that cen tb rdmlnlst,ercd obrecttrc'
ly, ltrnuS ltudy pneeilcnte ructr e^B thc llEt
EBdafron to the Relchs Cttbenshtp Ior of
Ita,wmh la, lgBo.rt.

Thus, I Ihrd that the race-based as-
sl8nnent ol cltlzera to polltlcal groups
lB 8 Dotentlally dlsruptlve task whtch
eppe&rs to be contrary to the Natlon's
mmt enllghtbned conc@tc of lndlvldu-
aldlgnlty a.nd slvtl rlghts.

Tlre aecond problem lnvolvee doubt
ful assumptlons whlch are necessary
to Eupport a mce-based system of rep-
resentation. The acceptance of e raclal
grroup ,as e pollttcal unlt lmplteg for
one thing, that race is the predoml-
nant determinant of politlcal prefer-
ence. Yet there is considerable evl-
dence that black political figures can
win substantial support from white
voters, and similarly, that white candi-
dates cirn v,'in the votes of black citt-
zerls. Attorney General Smith de-
scribed the evidence. He refemed to
the implication tha0 blacks will only
vote for black candidates and whltes
only for whlte candidates and said:

That, of course, ls not true. One of the
best examples of that ls the clty of Los An-
geles, $'tlcre qr black mayor of cotlrse was
elected \1ith inrhy u'hlte votes.r28

Similarly, a race-based system im-
plies that the decisions of elected offi-
cials are predominantly determined by
raeial clasisification, Professor Berns
questioned this assumptlon on his tes-
timony:
I question whether a black can be lairly

represented only by a black and not, for ex-
ample, b!' a Peter Rodino or that e white
can be fairly represented only by a whlte an
not, for example Edward Brooke.!26

In other words, there is no evidence
that racial bloc voting ls lnevltable and
reason to doubt that falr representa-
tion defends on racial ldentlty. Leglsla-

CONGRESSIONAL RECORD _ SENATE
tton whtch assumes the eo\trarr may
ttsef hsve the detrlmental conse-
quence of cstabllshtng reclal polarity
in votlng where nonet existp4 or was
merely eplsodlg and of estebllshing
race ali an aceepted factor ln the deci-
sionmaklng of elec'ted dtflc{als.

Flnally, sny assumptlon that a race-
based system wlll enhanee the polltlcal
inlluence of mhoritles ls open to con-
stdereble ilebete Prolessor Erler testl-
fied thet tt ls not always clerr thet the
lnterests ol raclal'mlnorlttea wlll be
best servd by rproportlonal rystem:

It mry unty ellos thc raElsl mtnprlty to
become hDlstld. TIle tnt€resE ol mlnorltles
are begL ltrrcd r,ren rEnrow .raclel lss\res
are lubsuErd wlthln r larrpr polltlcal con-
text whcrt rrce doa not detlnc Dolluc8l ln-
terests. The overwtelmln8 purDose of the
votlng Rlstltl i.lct I[Bs to creste thse condl-
tlons, and prob8bly no ttocr erample ol leg-
lslBtlon servlryl the comou lntereat can be
found. But trerulormlng tbc VotLa Rlahts
Act tnto r vehlclc of proportbnct lepresen-
totlon baeed upon rroc slll undermlne the
ground ol the commoi cood upon shlch lt
rest8. Such r transfotmrtlon tf,tll go far. to-
words precludlnc tlrc poeatbt[ty ol ever cre-
atlng r cotrlEoo lDtcrest or oommon ground
th8t tranaendr raclel, clr.se conslder-
EUOIT&I!?. .... i

Profe*or McMamrs'ftcallod tn ln-
sta^nce where Doltlca,Uy artlculate
blecb argued strrrngly.agalnst propor-
tlonal representatloru

Onc lrclion ol blrAr. led bysevenl statc
representatlve!. the thrtc bhck gouston
Clty Cbuncll nc'[hr, rrtucd lor spresdln8
lnlluenee .r!on8 thrtc comralssloneE
rEthe,r thrn hwtnS Ir dnclc black "(lnrre-
head" co[r.Ebsloner. Etolc Reprcsentatlve
Crelg WashlngtorL spokesperson for thc
group, rbllted out thst thne votes are
needed to eccoEpllsh a,nythlng subdtantlve.
"As long !3 se heve 25 percent ol the vote
ln any one dlsHct we rre golng to be the
balance ol poser. For that reason lt le
better for the bleck oommunlty to have
votlng lmpact on three commlesloners thsn
tb be lumpcd tog€ther ln one prcchrct and
elect a ble,c'k to slt at the tEble end wotch
the pepers fly up and down," he sald. Wash-
ington srgued thet paclrlng BU the bla.ks ln
one dlstrlet !r'as "not ln the best long-term
interests of the community."tre

The clty attorney for Rome, Ga.,
Mr. BrinsorL slmilarly observed:

Whlle the proposed amendment to section
2 may be prccelved as an effort to achleve
proportlonel representatlon rlmed rt BldlnB
a Sinoup's partlclpatlon ln the polltlcal proc-
esses, ln reality lt may wry well frustrate
the group's potenttslly successful efforts at
coalitlon bulldlng aeross reclal ltnes. The re-
qulrement of a quota of ractal polltlcal suc-
ces.s would tend strongly to stlgmatlze ml-
norities, departmentalize the electorate, re-
inforce any orguable bloc votlng syndrome.
and prevent mlnorlty members from exer-
clsinB influence on the polltlcal system
beyond the bounds of thelr qu91a,. t ze

A third problem reletes to the per-
petuatlon of segregated resldential
patterns. Since our electoral system is
establlshed within geographic p&ram-
eters, the prescriptlon of raee-based
proportlonel represent8tion means
that minorlty group members will in-
directly be errcouraged'to reside ln the
same &rtas tn order to remaln ln the
race-based politlcal $oup. A polttlcal

premium would be put on segregated
neighborhoods. Professot Berns used
the term "ghettoizatlon" to describe
thls process. "If we ere golng . to
ghetto.lze, whlch ln a sense ls what we
are dolng, wlth respect to some exoups,
whY not do lt for all Eroups?" rto Ito"
fessor McManus emphaslzed ln her
testlrnny that admlnlstratlve practices
tn the context of section 5 seemed to
encouraEe such segreS,etlon: , '

A premtum 16 put on lttentllytng radslv"
homogeneous preclnct! end uslnS thet E
the test, rnd lt seems to me the bottom llnc
lnference ls that raclal DolartzaHon, or
havlng pcople ln rrclBlly Egregated gra
clnct , l! the optlmsl solution or thc ldeal'
whlch I flnd very herd to rccept.r e cftlzco

I reject the premlse that proportlon
al representotion systems .ln fact'en-
hance mlnortty lnfluence-aa oppgsed,'
to mlnorlty representatlon. Even, how.:
ever,'to the extent th8t thls wetre a
valld premlse, tt would be valld only.
wlth respeet to hlghly segregated ml.
norlty 8troups. Indee4 proportionq
representatlcin systems would place r
premlum upon the rnelntenance ot
such se8r€latlon. Fbr to the ,extent
that emlnorlty foup succreded ln ln.
tegrattng ltself on a. geographlcel.
basts, tt ?ould eoneomttantly lose the
beneftts ol a ward system of'votlng.
Such e system would benellt mlnor.
ttles only lnsofa,r as reeldentlsl segm
getlon were malntelned for ruch
groups.

Thus, analysts suggeEts thst the ptu
posed change ln sectlon 2 lnvolves a,
dtstastelul questlon of raclal elasstflce.
tlon, lnvolves severel doubtful assumtr
tlons ebout the reletlonshlp between
race a,nd polttlcal behavlor, arid mry
encour&ge patterns of segregation that
are contrary to prudent publtc pollcy.
These llkely undeslrable soclal conse
quenoes ar8ue stronsly acalnst the
proposed change ln sectlon 2.

I note with lnterest the remarks in
the New York Timesraz recently by
my disttnguished colleague from
Maryland, Mr. Marnres, in whlch he
observes that the common interest on
the part of proponents of the intent
standard ts that we all want to create 8
"homogenous" Republican Perty.
Wlth all due respect to my frlend from
Maryland, that ls all utter nonsense,
Indeed, lt ls precisely the opposltr
reason that motivates many of us on
this side of the lssue.

The flaw in the argument of propo.
nents of the resulk test is that they
confuse [he concept of minority repre.
sentation with minority influence.
While they profess to be coneerned
about maxlmizing.the number of black
indlvlduals or Hispanic individuals or
Aleutlan lndiyiduals on a eity councll
or county commlssion or school boarrd,
they totally fail to recognize, in my
view, that this may be entirely incon.
sisteni with the idee of maximDlry'
black or Hispanic or Aleutian influ.:
ence on these representatlve bodies. !

The proportlonal representatlonr

June 9, 1989. ,,J
ior

..1 ol

.f wr
ii ou

fir
ititr
f,pe
* ctt

wou
hev
bln

': tul
-l ractr
, trctl

luenl
ol uf

;'Dhar
r tatl(
'sh8
tJl8t/'ltror

'nortl
itora'
dlstr
Aleu
mlgl
theh
clty
for r
cal sl
rell
flr

tlves,
ban
Just
ind r

o( th,
Mem
tlon I

rere
rcll I

'tdrs.
that r

thtc :

quest:
lnllue

premlse on the part of my eol



1989

rated
used
cribe
rto
rt we
)ups,
Pro-
her

tices
rd tO

:lally
rt 8s
l llne
I, Or
prG.

deal,
,lzen.

^lon-'en.
,sed
low-
neB
rnly
ml-
,n8l
EA

ol
bnt
t'ln-
leal:
the
lns..
10r-.
Brc'
uch

,no-
t8
tca.
n}.
B€N
0ay
hat
ley.
lse-
Lhe

ln
by
om'
he
on
:nt
ea
ty.
0m
ae.
tt€
on'

x)--

Jurc 9,1982 CONGRESSIONAL RECORD - SENATE s 6513
How could the ldea of raclally ldenil-

flable wards or dlstrlcts ever be looked
upon as a clvtl rights objectlve? Has
the clvil rlghts movement evolved so
sreetly over the past decade that all
hopes and ambltlons of ever achlevlng
a colorbllnd soclety have been dlscard-
ed? Does anyone hold the sllghtest
belief that results or effects analysls
wlU do anythlng other than tntensify
color consclousness?

IIow could the ldea of a l0-year ex-
tenslon of the Votlng Rlghk Act.
&dopted by the subcommlitee end
whlch I contlnue to support, ever be
vlewed as anythlng other than the
hlghest afftnnatlon of ctvll rlghts? It
was consldered such only I year ago. It
was only a year ago thsi Vernon
Jordan of the Urban League sald of
the act that, "ll lt a,tn't broke don't llx
It." It was only a year ago that Benja.
mln Eooks of the NAACP tesilfted ln
the llouse-

\tre suppoit the extcnston of thc Voung
Rtghts Act as lt ls now crrltteru Ttrc Voflnl
RIghts Act ls the glngle mort eltcettvc lc8il&
lstlon drafted tn the last two decrd6. I haw
no0 seen eny chsnSies that were enythlns
but changes lor changes seke. It sould be
best to extend lt ln ltr pre8eni lotu.tr.

I understand that pollttcal postttons
change end evolve over ilme, but I
slmply do not eccept as credtble that
the posltlon unanlmously endorsed by
the clvll rtghts communlty less than eyear ago now reflects an "antl-elvll
rlghts" posltlorl ltrat ts not the lntentol enyone that I know who opposer
the Eouse meaaure.

D. tltPAcr ot lEqrtoll t
Asslstant Attorney'Generel Reyn

glds emphaslzed ln hls tesHmony
before the subcommlttee that the prol
posed change ln sectlon 2 would epply
natlonu{lde, would apply to extsflng
laws snd would be a permanent provl-
slon of the act. These observatlons co-
gently estebltsh the parameters for es-
sesslng the practlcsl lrnpact of the pro-
Po8ed change ln iectlon 2.r!c

Every poltttcal subdlvlslon tn the
Unlt€d States would be llable to have
Its electoral practlces and procedures
evalueted by the proposed resultt t€st
of sectlon 2. It 18 lmportsnt to empha.
alze at the outset thai for purposes of
sectlon 2, the tem "poltilcal subdlvl-
slon". encompa-qses . all governmental
untts, lncludlng ctty and county eoun-
clls, school boards, uttllty dlstrtcts, as
well as State leglslatur6s. Ail pracflees
end procedures ln use on the,effecilve
date of the change Lr the law would be
subject to the new test, as well as &ny
slrbsequently adopted changes ln prac-
tlces or procedures. I'urthermore,
since the provlslon would be perma-
nent, a political subdivislon whlch was '
not in violation of section 2 on the ef.
fective date of the proposed amend-
ment, and whlch made no changes in
Its electoral system, could at some sub-
sequent date find ltself tn vlolation of
sectlon 2 because of new local condl-
tlons whlch may not now be contem-

iey
re-
oe.
ed
ck
or
cll
.d,

ny
n-
ng
u-

)n
es

on the other slde of thls lssue tmpltes than e stngte gO-percent mlnortty dts.of course, the ereatlon ol dlstrlct or trtct? Mlght they not be better iepre-
ward systems of government-through- sented even lf they had tewer repre-
out. the country ln plac-e of atlarge sentailves who werL black.or Hlspantc
systems, as weII as other baslc changes or Aleuuen?ln munlcipal and State. gov.ernment Senetor MATHTAS ts absolutelysrructure. rn & comm-u{ly-ytt! 

". 10: *.ong, rn mv oprnion, in nrs suiiii.p.ercent m.inority populatlon, and 1-0 tion ttrat oppondn* qitiii resutts testelty council seats, thls, lt ls presumed. ;;;;
wil. be rar more ik;ii ll i'#,i;i .i.',i,i: 

gfl :iff :t }",ff 1"' flt"lffi["*1"'"$"l;rlnority representatives than would an frife mv own prfmaiilnierest ln thtsat-large structure.

#
ffS::1"L:#H53i Il,TSrJithIlt :iffiffideughred u thet were my
syitem aistcnA-to-tiis;;;"ilnt;;: $!ereq! ytt'lt tlre opportunltv to. have
eie racrar-[-piesdr8[td];;;6;;rj; udy, lltue dtsrrtcts. tn whtch atl the

iX tffil:l- ilts"#lff gg'S if *j Hi:i,tf"I.f i"*llffiS*,1u*ill
lltlcal ghettoes. We wlll h8ve two dts- !.opgqenqs. party to hEve -tldy, Uttle
trtcts [r ttrts comminlt;-ntd'h"rr" dlstrtcts-but rn*,ly more of them_ln
concentra6ons of mmJrfiv iot rs. elii whlch nonnllrorltter were concentrat-
may well elect two mtnrirtty tnrfuvta: ed. I would be dellghted, ll that were
uati to the representeftve Uotiv.------ my lnterest' to toncede to mtnorltles c

On the other hand" untnl an et .or y number of seats end be able to
large system tn whlctr eU fO councu- 

-tocus the attentl6ns ol my party solely
men would have to be resDo*lve to e upon the rest ol the seets. I would be
lerge degree to mlnorlti tntertsts dellghted ttnt I would not heve to
under thC system destmeA to promoti start by calculrtlons ln each dtstlct
proportlonal representatton.- there wlth conslderatton of what must be
would;be g ssungilmgn who would not done to mexftnlze support, or mlnlmlze
have.lto pay one tota of attentlon to opposltlon' from the mlnorlty cornmu-
mlnortty lnter€st& Potentlally success- ntty.
ful elforts at coalltton bulldlng across In other wordr, lf one'! tnterest were
raclal llnes wonld lltely be blunted as I homogenour llepubltcsn Pcrty, I can
raclal llnes werc relnforccd and em. thlnk ol no better way to achteve that
phaslzed by the proporttonal nepresen- then by removlnS whet ls today a pre-
tatlon system. Ttre requlrement ol domlnantly Democretlc votlng group
what, ln effect, a.mounted to a quote outslde the boundartes of 80 to 00 per.
system of representetlon would tend cent oI the dlstrlcts !r the country and
strongly to lsolete and stlgmatlze ml. concedlng them B measure ol propor.
norltles by departmentatlzlnsi the elec. tlonal representatlon I would be de.
torate lnto bleck dlstrlcts and whtte llghted, lI that were ny lnterest. wtth
dlstrtcts and lllsbanlc dlstrlcts Bnd the rule of the Juttcc Depertment de.
Aleutlan dlstrlcts. M[nortty memberr veloped tr recent years that a dlstrlct
mlght well have more members ol requfes at least 8 O8.percent mlnorlty
thelr race or ethnlc group stttlng on e populatlon ln order to be classlfled as
clty councll, but thetr. opportunltles on€ "llkely to elect.g mlnorlty repre-
for exerclslng hfluence on the polttl- gentatlve." I would be dellghted not to
cal system outslde thelr dtstrtcts mtght have to start each and every congres-
well be lnfluenced. slonal or State leglslatlve or clty coun-I look at the llouse ol Represento- cll race 10 to 10 percent bchlnd b€-
tlves, for exarnple, and note that there eause of the presenee of a mlnorlty
ls an l8-Member Black caucus. r dld Sroup dlsproporuonat€ly attracted t6
Just a blt of research on thls matter my psrtlsan'opposltlon"
and noted that, on the everege, e&ch rrowever, none of that ls ny lnterest
of the dtstrlcts represented by these L8 nor, as far as I fnoq lni Gteriii oi
Members contalned a mlnorlty popula- anyone else opposlns the Senatortlon ln _excess of 80 percent. Now, lf I from Marylana b-n ttrti lssue. r shpry
were B Member of the c,aucus, r mlght do not accept the premtse or ttrJSeiii.
well be dellghted wlth thts state of at- tor, or that- ol ttri ctvtt ititrt* teadei-falrs. I would love to have B dlstrlct ehlp ln thts country toaai,ltrit ihe tn-that was nearly_ totally homogenous ln terests of mlnorlties a,r6'best servedthls respect. on the other hand, r when narrow raclal concerne are glvenquestion seriously whether mlnorlty prodomlnant focus ln the electoral
influence as opposed to mlnorlty rep- process. r belleve lnstead that it ts in
resentation is maximized by this state the best interests of minorlties-all mi-of affairs. Might not, for example, the norities-that raclal and ethnlc con.minority community in Detroit be cerns be subsumed wlthtn e fer largerbetter represented ln washlngton or polittcal context ln wtrlch race does
Lansing if there were three mlnorlty not define poliilcal lnteresk, ln whlcti
districts. of 30 percent each rather the two are not congruent.



olated a^nd wh6h max be beyond the and v@d tr lire dtf tltlrout htn- trtfir thl [oregplng, the tubcqnfttlt
5iiJ"trriJo"tror it ttie subdt-vklo&r'i .drane..t{ot$ftrrctmdtu tlrlc-tlndlng, dn the constltutlon eonclirded thet
--Wittrtn ttrese general and far.reach. howevetr, the &derrl ot.rt dlsectab- therc ts a dlstlnct Dosslblilty of c\ourL
lnglparameters,i., lt appeanr that any llshed the Boveranrentel system ordered restrlrcturlng wlth -regard to
pott[lcat subdlvlslon whlch has a alg- chosen by 'the cltlzens of- Mobtle, the system of cleetlng members to et
irtttcant rsclal or lsnguase mlnorlty thereby substButhu lts otlrn tudgrrent least 32 State legisletures ll the resultl
populatlon and , shlch has not lor that olthc pcople. .. test ls adqted for sectlon 2.t'3 (See 8b
ictrtevea Dioporttonrl .rrepreeentatlon The purposc of !.!lr sectlon ls to ex- tschment B.)
by race or'language€roupwould be ln plore the far-reabhlng Inpllcatloru_of T.lre subcommlttee emphaslzed that
Jiopardy of a iection2 vlolation under oveiturnlng tlre-Mobile declslon...Re- the three or four ..obJec[tve factors oI
ihe proiosed results tesL If ony one or search conducted by the suboommltteg dGcrdtnaHon- dtssussed above are by
morL ol a number of hddlttonal "objec- suggpets thrt ln a lsrtle number. of no means exhausilve of the posslblli.
tlve factors of di:scrtmtnatlon" ttt were Ststes there erlsts some comblnetlon ttes. aaatttonal factors whlcir mtght
present, a vlolatlon ts Ukely and court- of s leck ol proportlonel represente' iiwe--as a basls for court-ordeied
ordered restructurlng of the electoral tlon ln the State legdslature,or other cnanges ofsy.tems for electlng mem.
systemalmostcertalntofollow. governmental bodtes snd at left 9ne Ue.s-"oiStati; legislatures whic--h have-One 

wltness'remarks are eloquent ln addltlonal "obJectlve lactor 9j d^F_Illl' noianferea pr6porttonal representa.
capturins a sense of the potentlal lnatlon" whlch mtsht *9ll itlqcgl' iioi.'i"i1"Ae:riisplrttyinltteracyrares
breadth of the amendments to section under the results test, Federal ,coylt' Uvir.J, erfaence of racial bloc voting,
2: It is no overstatement to say that ordered restructurlng of thoie ele.9.t9l' ;"ht;di.v of English-only ballots, dii.
the effect of the amendment ls revolu- al systems where the crltical combina' priiiJ-lh distribution of services by

lisil}.'li"Ji,ilHin".1i3 i:ltt#:,::: ttffiJ#["iears 
to be a rack of pro. l?:,"r-:,lTb"red erectorar posts, prohi

tion codes of mnny states in all parts portional representetlo" i"^ J"""'Ji liti:":^:: sinele'slrot votins' majoritv

of the union . . . The amendment to both houses of, the state iegi."raiu.Is 1:!: t^1q-Yit"menLs, significant candi

ieciion i wur rikery rrive lrresC conse- tn thtrouowtns states wlth;i;fii;;; ffilil|it 1:1''ilr"ffijfd"jf!1.ilff;quences: First, tt wlll preclude any mlnorlty popula.tlons:r1o
ireani,gr,rr anhexatton 6i municrpai- 4las6,-Ad;oria, Arkanq*, *llti1fill ffiffn"tiiltldates' 

ofr'vear elections'

Itles, government consolldatlons. Colorado, Conneetlsut. Delaware,

;3}igj!ff:l'93j1?H,ll'i,i}ffi'*.':il ilH:13: 
'f,,'i,,1*1r,"1?ffiff; 

fi?*iill' . Anjgy:,[, B-sIATES tAcKrNG pRopoRlrot{Ar. RpnE.

fiavine a mlnority population. Second, rrr*"r.truiefi 'Ufutssippi, vriisouri, l!l$]gf-lN ONE 0R BOTH H0USES 0F IHt SIATT

It wili- ouuaw a[-tirie voitns In ani New Jersey, liew MextCo, New York, LEGISLATURI AND PRESTNCE 0F '0BJECTIVE FACI0RS

erea where any raclal, eolor, or lan- North Caroltna, Oklahoma" Pennsylva- 0t DISCRIMINATI0N

[Stile. letint Frydin i[g?smlrtin h qr r hti ln66 d $. Shh
lesrsLturrl

.Ir- ry* m ffi*
ffit"l ffiH w E'*w b vola tlil llata

Al$il..--***- I.--.---..--- X-*-
l&{r..--.-*._--. I.-*..-.*.- t...-.* x._* I
lrimr..---. X.--..-. X"--.- L---
lrtm8.-*--- I.--.--..-.- L---...-.--* I
C*10?nt*_.*- X...-......-.......--.-- L-..--.-. I
U!,6.--,.-. l--* I--* I- I
Cffilil,l--.-...-.X.---.--.--
D!bE!-.-__ I..-*-.- [----*..-. I
tuif*--- [--.--- I
HS_-_--*t -:-t_--*ir.-rffilr-L.--*L:-f---XIr,Er-. l---.-.._Ilttdv-- L,---..* L---_-_- I
Llrbni- l----,[----t.ryLid-.- a-- I-..-hdrrll.- I*.-....-.-.-....-xid!.r 

- 

L. 
--..- 

I----
xisqrl-* I,----.-.--.--....-- I
tlr lrr---- L..-..-...... I......---. I.-
ilr t ir.- x.-----1---- I
lLr Y[i.-*--i* 1".*...---. L-*-
Itdfi Crol[.**-- L.-...*...-. I.*.*-- L-
U([r!---_- I*.-.I-.-_..--* I
hms$rrh-- I-..---. x..-- L-,I
Rhd'Hrr--_--- [---.......-- I..-.----
Sou$ Mllr.-_* X--.-..--. t--.-***-
So,$ D*olr*.*_- I..*.....-- X..---...-.-.-'
I!ile....--...--...-.. [................. I............*- I.....*--- I
I!E!------- X---..-...----..*- I.-..-* I
tlldr-..*----. X...-..-...-.-..---** I"-- Iy;thlr--..-...--- I.................. x-.--.-*

s 6514 CONGRESSTU{AL'ITMMD"JSENATE

guage mlnorlty ls found. Third, tt wlll nla, Iihode Island, South Carolina'
ptace in doubt State laws governlng South Dakota, Tennessee' Texa^s,
qualificatlons and edueatlonal requlre. Utah, and f,trdnla.
ments for public offtce. Fourth, lt wtll In addltlon, there appear to be addl-
drarnaticatly aflect State laws estab- tlonal "objectlve factors of discrimina'
llshins con8resslonal dtstrtcts, State tlon" present ln vlrtually everV oni of
leg{slative dlstrlcts, a"nd local govefn' these States. Fbr example, ac'cording
hg Uodv apportlonment of distrlctlng to the U.S. Commlssion on Clvil
schemes. And fltth, lt will place ln Rtghtr, every Statc llsted has some
doubt provlslons of many electlon deftnlte hlstory of dlscdmtnetlon.r'r
codes throughout the Untted Stgtes. Ttrts olten has been txempltfled ln the

fhe probable natur€ of a sectlon 2 exlstence of rcgrctated or "dual"
order ls tllustrated by the actton of the school sgEtems.ro In eddltlon, the
dtstrtct eourt tn the Mob[e case.rrt At Councll ol State Govemrnenb has re'
the ttme the artlon was brought, the ported that Alastq Arlzona, Arkansaa'
ctty of Mobtle, Alu had e etty emrmts- Colorado, Delesglll, tlorlde, Georgla,
slon fonu ol gpvernment whteh hed llllnols, Indlana" tsttucky, Ioulslana,
been establlshed ln 1911. Three Com- Mgryland, New Jerscy, New Mexlco,
mlssloners electcd at lanB excrelsed New York" North Ce,ioltna, Oklahoma"
leglsletlve, ,executlrrc, and a&nlnlctra- Pennaylnenlq llhode Island, South
Hve power tr the clty. One ol the com- Caroltne, Boutlr Dl,tots, Ternessee,
mlsslsnen was deslSnatnd mayor, 8l' and YlrglntE rnwlile lor the cancella'
though no Dertlcrrler dutlec $ers Bpcc- tton of redfittlon lor fallure to vote,
lfted. The Judexnent ol the dlstrtct e typlcal "obtectlrre factor of dlscrlmt-
court disestabllshed the clty cbmmls- natlon."
slon and & new form,of munlclpal gov- The counctl has also reported that
ernment was substltuted eonslstlng of Alabama, Alaska,r't Arlzona" Callfor'
a m&yor and a nlne-member clW coun- nta, Colomdo, Dllnolg, Indlane, Mtssts-
cll with members elected from nlne slppl, New Jcraey, New York, North
slngle member wards or dtstrlcts. Ttre Carollna. Pennsylvantf Rhsde Island,
fect thet Moblle had not establtshed Tennelsee, Texes, and Utah estab-
Its system for dlscrlmlnatory purpoaes, ltshed e mtnlmum restdence requlre'
as well as the fact that cleer, nonraclal ment before electlons, another typlcal
Justtftcatlon exlsted for the at-large "obJectlve lactor of dlssrlmlna'
system was @nsldered largely lrrele- tlon." r" Ptrrther, accordlng to the
vant by the lower court. Thus, vlrfual- counoll sueh Stotee as Alaske, Arkan-
ly none of the orlglnal governmental sas, Callfornia, Colorado, Delaware,
system remained after dlsnrantltng by Florlda" Illlnols, Indlana, I(entueky,
the district court. The confltct be- Mlssourl, New . Mexlco, Oklahoma,
tween the distrlet court's Mobtle dect- Pennsylva,nl&, Tennessee, Texas, and
slon and fundamental notions of Utah heve establtshed staggered elec'
democratic self-governmerrt is obvlous. torel terms for membens of the State
Particularly noteryorthy ls the dlstrlct senate, stlll eJrother "obJectlve factor
court's findtng that blacks reeilstercd of dlscrlmlnatlgll" r{r

Juiu 9,'l-983

tloE Ib ,rrr ,h r Std! cl I D.rticlhr rotirrilt ffi d
dbcriihrtm" h hftrtld x "X' h h. cdmr dl lltc t8r lil ! tll
mr C th SbL. Ih hlrntth ,llsathd h tlr dltl b tL trt a
Eatld ilr,! i tr ldt a,i $a ldrcti ,a tlr sr I lEln aox. IE
itun druil !a d.ttl' I mrlly rmlh.r rry o( efictinf tlE hffir.lidf
d iutr h cur*tud h lifhl 0l llr H rrl nlrtd lD{!r. h FiIEL il
sid# h ld h rid tiX 0.*y I ttnglmf ol tlr "diclilc hil! d
discrimiulin' ,t n lr$ h th ch.il

In addltton, the subeommlttee ana-
lFed factual clrcumstances ln such
communltles as Baltlmore, Md.; Blr-
mlngham, Ala.; Boston, Mass.; Ctnctn-
nBtl, Ohlo; Dover, DeL; Fort lauder-
dale, F1L; New York Clt$ Norfolk,
Va.; Pltts-bursh, IrB.; San Dlego, Clallf.;
Savarurah, Gq and YVaterbury, Conn.:

tlr
DG
rd
mt
dltt
utl
8Bl
ne!

I
tht
sio:
get
res
ma
tlo:
c&s
to
del
pr(
bet
tes
tht
sht
or
prl
clr
ml
th,
al

I
to
ml
dlt
of
e9
ol
ex
fair
lo
DT
es
.il
th
rEt

fl
tlr
hr
cf
c(
cl
v
s
EI
br
t(
w
dr
sl
u

8l
t(r

.D