A Report: Police Use of Ammunition

    A Report:

POLICE USE OF AMMUNITION

mass, research center



POLICE USE Ai'iMUlv’ITIOlM

i>iar!i=;acuaR«'bl.i=! Pesparcu ’"'f^nlor, 3 S t r e e t ,  iioRtou, M assacLusetts 0210G

( cover  puooOgraph, takezi h j  W illiam  J. Pop ser, If oI a p o lice  
o f r ic e r  wlio i s  ca rry in g  • 3o x'ounfl nose, lead al.loy arju anition , 
'=xcepL fo r on'’ p̂ ’ici-wad c u t te r  on the f a r  r ig h t  of h is  o e l t . )



PREFACE

The Massachusetts Research Center is publishing this report for the 
general public. The Center’s interest is to Increase the awareness of 

recent developments within our state on the use of ammunition by our police 
departments. The report does not make any recommendations as the hope is 
to Increase discussion of the facts and enable decisions with greater 

knowledge to be made in the future. This report does not complete our 
research on this project as there is a lack of information pertaining to the 
semi-wad cutter. As additional tests can be done and as more ballistics 
reports become available, the Center will make an additional presentation on 
this particular bullet.

At this time it is my pleasure to thank Richard Hesky and Mike Daly, 

who have done a great deal of the necessary work to make this report possible, 
Also, Tim McNally who served as Project Manager for the research along with 
Bonnie Neilan who provided continued general assistance, and Jordaui Paust 
who provided expertise and background on the subject.

Special acknowledgment is given to William J. Rosser who is responsible 
for all the photographs within this report.

Brian McDonald 
Executive Director

This report should not be reprinted or reproduced in any form without the 
permission of the Massachusetts Research Center.



TABLE OF CONTENTS

Executive Summary

Introduction

II Methodology

III Background

IV Wounding Capacity

V "Stopping Power" versus "Shocking Power"

VI Legality

11

19

21

VII Survey Results

VIII Photograph Section

Appendix I 
Appendix II 
Appendix III

25

photo-pages 1, 2, 3 & ^

questionnaire 

cover letter
chart with responses from 
cities and towns on weapon 
and ammunition usage

Appendix IV The Semi-wad Cutter

11
iii

iv



EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

The Massachusetts Research Center has, in response to a number of 
requests, conducted a study on the police selection and use of certain 
weapons and ammunition. In the course of this research, personnel at the 
Center examined the history of these weapons and ammunition, their wounding 

capability, the legal issues involved both from an international and 
national perspective, a review of stopping power and shocking power, as 

well as participating in a test firing of some of the bullets.
All local cities and towns in Massachusetts with a police department 

were surveyed and through general returns and follow up, there vrere I63 
responses. Of these departments which responded, one out of three is using 

either the semi-wad cutter or hollow point bullet. Ttierc were 33 dcparUicnts 
or 2O0 of the survey sample using a hollow point type of anmiunition. Eor 

coi.parative purposes, 23 major cities outside Massachusetts were sum/eyed 
with tiie same questioiuiairc. One half of these out-of-state cities use 
aijiii.uiiition other thaii thf̂  .3 3 lead alloy rouxad nose bullet ai:id one third use 

some tjyp'̂  of hollow point bullet. A definite trend towards more powerful 
bullets aiid weapons capable of shooting higher velocity bullets was apparent.

lest firing representative tj-pes of'a.im.unition Into CC lbs. blocKS of 
soap (wulcn approximated the specific gravitj of huiiiaii tissue') r'̂ v̂ al"'̂  a great 
diversity in woumdlng ciiaracterisoics.

fn'= traditional .30 caliber ro^nd nose lea'’ alloi bulle^ caus'̂ d a 
p''i’i..anent track of abouc 2 ''-̂ of an inch in dlavueter hirougu tnc blocn.

In contrast, tnc nollow point bullets x^red ao a nigh velocity literally 
exploded upon entering the block of snap. Ine "wound capitation" was x«aiv 
tlines the c!i7,p ji’ tiic . 3'3 lead alloy I’nund nose track. See photo-pages 2 cc3*



rain increased wounding occurs for two reasons. First, the severity 

of the wound caused ty any bullet is a function of the kinetic energy it 
expends upon impact emd while travelling through an object. The kinetic 
energy is obtained by multiplying the mass times the square of the velocity 

d i v i d e d  by two. ICE = mv^ /2 Tlius one means of increasing the wounding capacity 
wl' a ballet is to increase the iiiass (weight) or to increase its .'■̂ locity.

Of the two, it is the velocity for which an increase is far more significajit.
A second meaiis of increasing the wounding capacity is to change Che shapes of 

î ne ballet t,o increase its tendency to slow down or stop within th° object.

If a ballet slows down or stops within an object a great portion if not all 

of its <=>nergy will b'’ f»::pended within the object or person. The holluw point 

ouli^ts ai’c deslgne'^ to .i-ashrooiu upon entry into an object and will often 
evpnn'̂  their total kinetic energy within the object.

For exar.ipls, if the traditionsQ. .3 2 caliber bullet strikes an object with 
235 ft/lbs of Kinetic energy and exits (which it is likely to do with a
hoi..ati because of the bullet design) with 155 ft/lbs of energy, it has in
'Effect, barring other factors, done IOC ft/lbs of wounding dar^ge. If, on 
thf* other hand, a bullet hit and remained in the body it would expend all
255 ft/lbs of energy in the tody of the person hit. The hollow point bullet

is designed to achieve this effect. By mushrooming and fragmenting upon 
entry, the hollow point bullet creates a very large wound cavitation and 
extensive damage to surrounding tissue. Even if the bullet were to exit 
it would do so with a very low residual energy.

Two teimis Importamt to understand the differences between, have been 

used virtually synonomously by manufacturers, sportsmen and police departments. 
They should not be. Police depaurtments have escalated their weaponry 

seeking greater "stopping power". Instead, with the adoption of hollow point



and high velocity aiiiEiunition they have achieved greater "shocking power".

The distinction is that a huilet w'oicn is capahie oT "stopping" or 
halting an assailant need not he also designed to deliver naocinuia "shocking" 

or wornding power to the flesh of the earget apon entrp.
Tor exainplej the .̂i-5 calioer biollet hits with great ».n.ss at low velocity^ 

knocking the person down, tut then passes tiiroijgh the tissue as it is round 
nosed and f'ully copper jacketed, retaining lauch of its kinetic energy as it exits 

the wound. In contrast, the hollow point bullet will dispel almost all of its 

energy into the person hit as it is less likely to pass through the body. Tne 
traditional .h") caliber illustrates great: "stopping or halting power". The high 

velocity hollow point illustrates equally great "shocking or wounding power".
Irregularly shaped projectiles, projectiles filled with glass and projectiles 

designed to expand greatly upon inroact, so called dun d'ons, were banned in warfare 

by the Hague Declaration of 1399j "the 19^7 Hague Convention 2Io. TJ ajid nost recently 

in principle, by the policies contained in the Geneva Conventions of 19^9* The 

'J.S. was not a signatory to the 1399 Declaration but it is a signatory to all 

other relevent conventions and declarations and it has subscribed to the principles 

of the 1899 Declaration, and the ban on the irregular or duE duin bullet. LI. S. 

Eilitary manuals reflect this prohibition and the principles behind it, "even 

in combat suffering should be miniuiized and life preserved wherever possible.” 

Similar phrases appear in joany najor police departmental directives on the use 

of deadly force.

The hollow point bullet, definitely banned in international warfar'=*, is 
contrary to the principles espoused by our z.dlitary and police d‘=partments, It 

is argued by soi..e thao the eictraordinary w>oaniing capacity/ and consequent high 
probability of the fatality of the hollow point bull'^t .::ay violate the xr/

Amendment of the united States Coastitucion which prohibits deprivation "of -life, 
liberty or property without due process ol law" and the VIII A^nendment prohibi­

tion of "cruel aizd unusual punisliment".



I. Introduction

The Massachusetts Research Center is a tax exempt, non - profit educational 
organization engaged in research on social policy questions currently 
confronting state and local government. Recent examples of the Center's 

work include a seven part examination of school desegregation in Boston 
and studies on the Massachusetts state government budget preparation process.

In June, 197^  ̂ the Connecticut state police formally changed their 
weapons from the traditional .3 3 caliber police special firing a lead alloy, 

round nosed, 1>3 grain bullet, to a .337 magnum pistol firing a soft, pure 
lead, hollow point 110 grain bullet. The attendant or resulting fux'or 

liighiightcd a growing national c^jneern. State and municipal piolice departments 

have increasingly com'’ to believe that the traditional .3 3 caliber side arm 
lacks sufficient "stopping power" to halt an assailant and thus, across the 

country, departments are changing to more powerful weapons and or to the use 

of flat or hollow point ammunition which is believed to provide greater 

"stopping power".
Exactly what is the difference between these weapons and t;̂’pes of 

ammunition? Is there any difference in "stopping power" or "shocking power" 
and exactly what do those terms mean*’ Wlmt is the difference in wounding 
capacity of these bullets'^ Are hollow point bullets "d'um dums" auid if so, 
aren't such bullets outlawed by the Geneva and Hague Conventions'^ What 
kinds of bullets do Massachusetts' city and town police use?

These and similar questions were asked by the Center's Executive Board 
members in the wane of the Connecticut Statu Police change-over and the 
revelation of usage by the Massachusetts State Police of hollow points.

The following report answers these questions.



II. Me thodology

To determine what kind of weapons and ammunition police departments 
in Massachusetts were presently using, a questionnaire (attached as appendix, 
l) was sent to all the police departments of all Massachusetts cities and 

towns. The seune questionnaire was also sent to 25 additional major cities 

outside Massachusetts for comparitive purposes. Results of the survey with 

commentary are detailed in the survey section of this report.

After acquisition of appropriate licenses, samples of the most 
frequently used types of ammunition were purchased and examined. All 

relevent literature, including manufactvirers' catalogues, balistics texts, 
and periodicals such as Guns and Ammo and Law and Order magazines were 

examined. All major manufacturers were contacted for additional literature 
concerning technical specifications of their ammunition and the chief 
ballistician of each manufacturer was interviewed by telephone to determine 

the extent of their testing and knowledge particularly concerning wounding 
smd ricochet potential.

To determine the wounding capacity of various types of ammunition, 
all available medical texts and relevent periodical literature were reviewed. 
The authors of certain informative articles were Interviewed by telephone 
for additional details. Authorities at two independent laboratories, the 

U. S. Army Edgewood Arsenal, the Armed Forced Institute of Pathology, and 
the Office of the Surgeon General were contacted by telephone and mail for 
additional information as well as personal opinions.

Local medical examiners and area hospital emergency room personnel 
with experience in gun shot wound characteristics were interviewed in 
person and by telephone.

Ammunition commonly used by police departments was test fired in an



outdoor range to test and experience firing characteristics. To approximate 

the wound characteristics of this ammunition, the rounds were fired into 
60 pound blocks of soap of approximately the same specific gravity as human 
muscle tissue.

After the firings, the blocks were cut open to enable photographs to be 
taxen of the bullet tracks. (See photo-page 3)

ilit;; question of legality of dur.i dum or irregularly shaped bullets was 

pursued by means of a thorough examination of pertinent literature to include 

relevant international covenants and legal documents. Recent U. S. Army 

•sianuals on the subject were obtained and reviewed and the author of several 

of the Army manuals was interviewed.



III. Background

The survey disclosed,a wide range of handguns and eunmunition in common 

use by various police departments in Massachusetts and throughout the country. 
While complete results are presented in the survey section of this report, 

succeeding sections will not be meaningful unless the reader has some sense 
of the physical appearance and characteristics of the most commonly employed 
weapons and ammunition.

Since the turn of the century the most popular police firearm has been 
the .38 caliber ( caliber = 1 'lOO of 1", therefore .38 caliber = 38/IOO 
of 1".') six shot revolver pistol with a two, four or six inch barrel length, 

as seen on the cover of this report. Until recently, this weapon was almost 

universally equipped with a . 38 caliber cartridge containing a I58 grain (weight) 
lead alloy (as opposed to pure soft lead) round nosed bullet. When fired, 

the bullet left the muzzle of the gun at a speed or velocity of 855 feet 
per second.

As previously noted, over the past two decades, particularly during 
the civil disturbances of the mid 1960's, officers increasingly complained 

that this traditional weapon end load lacked the ability to stop an assailant 
immediately without fear that the assailant would be able to return the fire. 
Secondarily, some departments became concerned at what was believed to be 
the high ricochet potential of the hard, round nosed bullet of the traditional
.38.

The response to these complaints took several forms as may be seen in 
the photographs on photo-page 1.

Years before, during the Spanish-American War, United States soldiers in 
the Philippines found the .38 caliber pistols unable to stop Phllippino



8

guerilla? making lunging spear attacks at short distances from ambush in tall 

sugar cane stands. The U. S. Army adopted the now famous Colt .^5 caliber 
automatic pistol with an enormous slug, nearly l/2 inch in diameter which 
hits the assailant like a large fist and thus had tremendous "stopping power".

-̂/hile all U. S. military officers and military police retain the .^5 

caliber pistol, it was believed to be too heavy and cumbersome for civilian 
police work and consequently Remington Arms refined the concept to produce 

the .̂ +1 caliber pistol having nearly the same impact at less weight.
Few departments took up the Remington .4 1, which had been specifically 

developed with police use in mind, as it represented a large investment in 
new pistols and training to familiarize officers with a new weapon still 

believed by many to be heavy and cumbersome.

More recently the . 357 magnui;i pistol has become popular with many 
Departments as it approximates the .38 caliber in size and yet is capable 

of firing the higher velocity bullets described below.

Bullet development capitalized on two old ideas. In the late nineteenth 
century Captain Bertie Clay, in charge of the British Royal Arsenal at 
Dum Dun, India, outside Calcutta, discovered tiiat a large soft bullet was 

more effective in stopping the charges of often fanatic hill tribesmen. He 
further noted that if such bullets were scored or formed in irregular shapes 

in addition to being made of pure soft lead without full copper sheathing, 
they expeinded terrifically upon impact causing great damage to the person 
struck by such a bullet. And so the term "dum dum" was born to describe 
a soft bullet without full sheathing which would expand greatly upon impact.

The use of such bullets in warfare was outlawed by a series of 

international conventions detailed in the legal section of this report for 
reasons made clear in "Wounding Capacity". However, for years hunters in



Africa and elsewhere used various types of Captain Clay's discovery in order 

to ensure that an animal shot once died instantly, and not a lingering 

death days later. Tlie most common such "one shot" hunting bullets used pure, 

soft lead with a hollow point to insure maximum spread or mushrooming of the 
bullet on impact.

Another related development was the use of the soft, lead, flat pointed 
bullet coimnonly known as the "wad cutter". This bullet was originally 

developed for target shooting purposes. Round nosed bullets slice through 
a paper target and thus the precise point of center impact is difficult 

to determine. The flat nosed bullet punches a clean, round hole in the paper 
target much like a paper punch and would punch a similarly clean hole in the 
cloth "wad" used to clean the barrel of the weapon, hence the name "wad 
cutter".

A "semi-wad cutter" bullet is an adaptation of a wad cutter, but with 
a somewhat better aerodynamic shape. It is illustrated on photo-page 1 .

The second development in the search for greater "stopping power" was to 
increase the velocity at which the bullet left the muzzle of the gun and 
hence its velocity, or speed, upon impact. This was done by slightly reducing 

the size of the bullet and packing the space gained within the cartridge case 
with additional powder and/or powder which would produce greater velocity 
when fired.

The Super Vel Corporation of Shelbyville, Indiana has achieved considerable 
sales to police departments with a combination of the two developments.
Super Vel manufactures a .38 caliber bullet, 110 grains in weight permitting 
additional powder to attain a muzzle velocity of I370 feet per second 

(ft./sec.) as compared to 855 ft./sec. for the traditional .38 caliber roimd 
nosed bullet. This high velocity cartridge may be obtained as either a flat



10

point with a partial copper Jacket (semi-wad cutter) or a partially- 
jacketed hollow point.

Similar combinations are produced by several other manufacturers.

Super Vel is cited for illustration as it was an early specialist in the 
manufacture of such bullets.

The development of such "super velocity" .38 cal. cartridges with or 

without flat or hollow point bullets meant that greater power could be had 
sinipuy by loading standard .38 cal. police special revolvers, used by almost 

all American police departments, with the new cartridge thus obviating the 
expense of equipping the entire department with new pistols.

Some Departments responding to our questionnaire and several manufacturers 
further believed that use of the hollow point or semi-wad cutter diminished 

ricochet potential as the flat point, especially at "ordinary" or traditional 
855 ft/sec velocities was less likely to bounce off curbsides or other hard 

objects. The Center's research was unable to discover any useful experLments 
conducted by manufacturers, police departments or the military to prove 
or disprove this assertion.

While the Center's research -was not able to uiicover definitive research 
in the area of ricochet capacity, it did reveal a great deal of work by 

various public and private medical authorities including the military into 
the wounding capacities of the types of bullets described in this section.



11

r/. Wounding Capacity

Most of the criticisn of police use of hollow point .38 caliber 
arnmunition has been directed at the excessive wounding capacity of these 

bullets.^ The follcwing is intended as a brief explanation of what determines 

wounding capacity and why hollow point bullets are considered efficient 
wounding agents.

It is now widely accepted in medical and ballistics literature that the 
kinetic energy transferred to the body by a bullet determines the severity 
of the wound that a bullet will inflict. As Major French and Brig. Gen. 

Callcndar state in their article, "Ballistics Characteristics of Wounding 
Agents,"

...all physical phenomena-connected with the wound and its 
formation were (found to be) direct functions of kinetic 
energy. 2

0Kinetic energy is expressed by the formula E = mv /2 , where E represents 
kinetic energy, m, the mass of the bullet and v2 the velocity or speed of the 
bullet squared. Bullet velocity, because it is squared in this expression, 
has greater effect on kinetic energy than does bullet mass, and is the major 
factor in making a bullet capable of wounding.

Three different phases of a bullet's velocity are important in determining 
wounding capacity. Muzzle velocity is the velocity of the bullet as it 

leaves the gun, impact velocity is the velocity of the bullet as it strikes 
a target, and residual velocity is the velocity of the bullet after it leaves

^ see Spitz & Dimaio, "Wounding Characteristics of Unusual Firearms", Journal 
of Forensic Science, Vol. 17, July '7 2, p. 377-86 for a clear statement of 
hollow point and soft point ammo wounding capacities.

2 from J . C. Beyer, Wound Ballistics. Office of the Surgeon General, 
Department of the Army.



12

a target through which it has passed.

The impact velocity determines the probable severity of the wound, 

and the difference between the impact velocity euid the residual velocity 

determines the amount of energy actually doing work in producing the wound. 

Although the impact velocity is less than muzzle velocity, except at point 
blank range, at the average police combat range, 15 to 20 feet, the two can 
be considered to be essentially equal.

High velocity bullets, carrying a large amount of kinetic energy, have
been found not only to leave a permanent track in the body, but also cause the

formation of a tenq)orary cavity as they pass through. Like the waves created
when a rock is dropped into a pond, shock waves radiate out from the bullet's

path, displacing and damaging tissue. This cavltatlonal effect has been
likened to an internal explosion. When the kinetic energy being absorbed is

great enough, "Tissues adjacent to the wound tract become secondary missiles",3
damaging tissue far removed from the bullet's actual path. Cavltatlonal
damage, however, is not readily apparent when wounds are later examined.

Because of the resiliancy of tissue, the temporary cavity collapses (just as
the water of the pond mentioned above flows back into the area of the stone's

impact after it has passed) leaving little overt indication of damage. While
the most prominent feature of a wound will be the permanent track, it will be

found that tissue outside of the permanent track will show severe damage:

Partially or completely disrupted nerves may be found 
along with damaged blood vessels...Bone may be found 
fractured without evidence of a direct hit. ^

Kinetic energy is measured in foot pounds, and the army considers 58

3 Vftn. Demuth, M.D., "Bullet Velocity and Design as Determinants of Wounding 
Capacity," J. Trauma, Vol. 6, I966.

U French and Callender, p. I33.



15

ft. IbG. of energy sufficient to produce a casualty. As French and Callender

:tate,
Under optimal conditions, a missile with considerably less 
energy than 53 ft. lbs. can produce a serious wound, but on 
the average it is probable that this amount of energy 
will ensure casualty. 5

The great importance of bullet velocity is apparent; even a small projec­
tile can do damage if fired at high velocity. Standard .38 caliber 

police special ammunition, a round nosed, lead alloy bullet, weighs 153 

grains and has a muzzle velocity of 055 ft/sec. The muzzle energy for this 
bullet (according to the Winchester catalogue) is 255 foot pounds, over 
four times the energy that the Army considers sufficient to cause a serious 
casualty.

In response to police complaints that this .38 caliber police special 
bullet does not deliver enough "shocking power" (kinetic energy), other 
bullets have been developed. The table below compares some of those newer 
bullets with the . 38 police special:

( see next page. Table I )

5. Ibid., p. 9 .̂



14

TABLE I

Velocity (ft/cec) Eiiergy (ft-lLs.)

.33 cal. round 
nose, lead alloy 
(several ruanu- 
facturers)

133 8>5 735 255

0 0  j U S .

199

Super Vel .38 cal. 
semi-wad cutter

153 853 755 255 199

Winchester .38 cal 
semi-wad cutter 
(used by Boston P.D.)

133 1060 295

Super Vel .38 cal. 
semi-jacKeted 
hollow point

1370 12L0 » r O
375

Winchester
.357 magnuj.., semi-
Jacketed hollow pt.

110 loCO 550

Periling ton 
.357 .cagnuin, semi­
wad cutter

1 r O n  5 T  /-VJ-HxU 895

(Note that where figures are available in the above table for loss of energy 
o/er yards^ the loss was about one fifth. If we consider average police 
cojnbat range to be 3 7 yards, it is evident that we can assume impact
energy at that range to essentially equal muzzle energy.)

The newer bullets, with their generally higher velocity and therefore 
higher kinetic energy, clearly have a greater wounding capacity. It must be 
remembered, however, that the energy available for transfer to the body on 
Impact is not always completely expended. The energy available to form a 
wound is the difference between the impact energy and the energy still



15

/ maintained by the bullet when it exits the body.
This fact helps to explain the deadly effectiveness of a hollow point 

bullet. These bullets, composed of soft lead with a hollow point are 
designed to deform upon contact with a target. In addition, these bullets 
are often not fully jacketed. If not Jacketed, there is no restraint upon 

the expansion of the soft lead; if semi-jacketed, the gilded semi-sheath 

peels back like a banana skin on contact. The gross deformation of these 
bullets causes them to decelerate very rapidly. They can therefore expend 
all their available kinetic energy within the body, since if they exit at all, 
it is with a small residual velocity. A 1973 study by the Dallas Police 

Department indicated that a Winchester HP considered for use by the Department, 
expended on the average 80^ of its energy within the body.

There are other considerations that operate to make hollow point bullets 
more effective wound producers, most of which depend on the bullet's tendency 
to yaw or tumble, both in travel through the air and after contact with a 
denser medium. Many factors can affect this instability.

Bullets derive much of their stability or "gyroscopic inertia" in travel 

through the air from the spin imparted to them by the rifling in the gun 
barrel. Hunting rifles and target pistols have long barrels ranging upwards 

from nine Inches. Most police revolvers have a six or four inch barrel.
Small personal weapons with two inch barrels are useless at much more than 

point blank range; the minimum rifling makes them very inaccurate. These 
little guns aren't meant to be aimed carefully; one simply points them in 
the general direction of an assailant and pulls the trigger.

A bullet's shape also affects its travel throxigh the air. Much research 

has gone into devising the best aerodynamic shape, and accuracy over much of 
a distance seems to depend on a pointed nose shape, often with a hollow or



16

tapered “base.
Once in tissue, a bullet rarely retains its perfect nose-on position.

This is particularly true if it passes from one tissue to another of a 

different density, or if it strikes bone. Tlie bullet may continue its flight 
through the target sideways or even tail first.

Tlie extreme angles of yaw imparted to a ballet as it travels through 

tissues of different densities, as from soft tissue through bone, then 

muscle auid finally tlirough soft tissue again, increases its rate of retar­
dation. Retardation increases as the square of the angle of yaw, a yaw of 

170'̂  increases the rate of retardation 172 tii.ies (see French and Callender, 
p. 132). This explains whj “v'̂ n high velocity bullebS are stopp«=d readily.

Because the hollow point is designed to uushroom or expand up-̂ n impact it 
loses any gyroscopic stability it ha'̂  in air upon contact with a denser mediuiii. 
Its erratic behavior in the body is a .l Jor reason for its high retardation, 
meaning that most, if not all, of its energy will be transiiiitted to the 
formation of a wound. Wliere a bullet with a better aerodynamic configuration 
may enter a body nose-on, lose less of its stability within the denser tissue, 
and therefore exit from the body with soiiie or most of its kinetic energy intact, 
the hollow point can tuLible, tear and often fail to exit.

A hollow nose bullet, one that is designed to deform upon inipact, can 
therefore cause more damage, because it expends more energy, than a bullet 
with higher impact velocity that, because of its design, exits from the 

body with substantial residual velocity and therefore substantial residual 
energy.

Yaw and tumbling within the body Increases the rate of retardation and 
therefore the energy expenditure of the missile, and thus Increases the 
missile's ability to form the very damaging temporary cavity.

The extent of the woiuids caused by missiles transferring vanious eunounts 
of kinetic energy can be fairly accurately calculated. It has been determined



17

that for every foot pound of energy doing work in wound formation there will 

be a permanent cavity remaining with a volume of 2 -5^7 x 10 ^cubic inches. ^ 
For each foot pound of energy expended, the area of extravasation (destruction 

of blood vessels with resultant hemorrhaging) is 30*105 x lO”̂ cubic inches.
The extent of the temporary cavity (with accompanying nerve damage and other 

trauma) is 6 6 .2̂ +7 x 1 0 ”  ̂cubic inches per foot pound of energy. ®
To help visualize the extent of wounding produced by these bullets, it is 

useful to do the multiplication. The following table shows the size of the 
wounds for various energy absorbed, assuming that the bullets do not exit 

from the target but expend all their available energy within the body:

Cartridge
TABLE II

Muzzle Energy Area of
Permanent tract 
(cubic in.)

Area of 
Extravasation 
(hemorrhage)

Area of 
Temporary 
Cavity (in^)

Super Vel .38 
cal. seml- 
Jacketed, 
hollow point

L58 1.15 1 3-7'+ 31 -33

Winchester .3 5 7  
magnum, semi- 
Jacketed HP

550 1.38 16.50 36.30

Remington .357  
msgnum, seml- 
wad cutter

695 1 .7 +̂ 20.9 1̂ 5.87

The extent of the destruction measured in this table is extensive. It 
is fair to assume that wounds of this magnitude, occurring anywhere on the

6 French and Callender, op clt, p. 13^

7 Ibid.

8 Ibid.



18

head or trunk areas, are likely to be fatal. **
It is important to point out that any bullet can kill. Only a few 

foot pounds of energy, if directed at the right place, can cause death. The 
energies calculated above, however, if expended totally or largely anywhere 

within the tmnk of a human body, can almost guarantee death.

** A graphic illustration of wounding capacity is provided by referring to 
to photo-pages 3 & U. In each a bullet of the type indicated in the caption 
was fired into a 60 lb. block of soap which has a specific gravity of 1.03 
which nearly approximates the 1.02 - l.oA specific gravity of human muscle
tissue. After firing, the block was cut open and photographed to illustrate 
the path of the bullet.



V. Stopping Power vs. Shocking Power

19

Txie terms "stopping power" and "shocking power" have, or should have, 
distinct and different meanings, they are, however, often confused and 

often used interchangeahly. We believe that a proper understanding of 
the differences in the two terms will help to clarify some of the debate 

over the choice of police weaponry.
Shocking power is the power to wound, which is primarily a function 

of the kinetic energy of the bullet, fis explained in the previous section 
(IV. Wounding Capacity), kinetic energy increases with the square of the 
velocity of the missile, and bullets that strike a target with a very high 

velocity, or bullets designed to expend all or most of their kinetic energy 
within the target, have a large wounding capacity.

Stopping power, on the other nand, is the power to stop or knock down, 
and an increase in stopping power does not necessarily imply an increase 

in shocking power. Stopping power is a function of the momentum of the 
missile, which is defined as the mass times the velocity. In this equation, 

mass is an equal partner of velocity, and momentum increases directly with 

an increase in either factor.
Momentum can be doubled by doubling either the mass or the velocity. 

Doubling the mass will also double the kinetic energy; however, doubling 
the velocity will quadruple the kinetic energy, since kinetic energy increases 
with the square of the velocity. Therefore, to increase the momentum, or 
the power to knock down, while minimizing the increase in the energy, or 
the power to wound, one can increase the mass of a projectile while keep­
ing the velocity constant.

Considerations of momentum guided the U.S. Army in adopting the Colt 
. 5̂ as standard issue sidearm. The large, heavy slug fired from this gun



20

knocks down a target, even though its velocity is relatively low. The .1+5 

AGP bullet, a fully jacketed round nose, is designed for high penetration; 

it will generally pass through a target. It will not deform or fragment. 
It has great "stopping power" but relatively little "shocking power."

These principles are also behind the development of "stun guns" or 

"bean Lag guns." A projectile of great mass or weight can knock down an 

individual, even though the velocity is not high enough to penetrate the 
skin. (At least 125 +>et per seconci is necessary to penetrate skin.)

Tills report has not attempted to evaluate the claim of many police 
depai't...exits that th^ traditional . 3'3 caliber round nose ECiU.iuiiition fired 
from tn® .38 Police Special revol/er is inadequate. We ha.e fouiid no 

'̂ ata oi' statistics to either pro.'® u r dispiove this claiiii. nowe.e*'.

a cnautie xx. lie® weapoiii'̂  is ®̂ei..e:̂  liecessaiy, an und.®r®taxidix̂ ^̂  .A ,he

two ro u tes  th a t  can be followed -®: Uxer to  g r e a te r  Sooppiiig power ( g r e a te r  

mnocK-d vWn p jwer'' or  great® r shoort-ing j .̂ower (gr®acer w^undixig capacx - 

.should iielp to c la r i . t^  uhe dopac® and uhe '=i«cision



21

VI. Legality

During the nineteenth century, bullets with irregular shapes, scored, 
flattened or hollowed tips or filled with glass to enhance wounding capacity, 

saw increasing use in warfare. These bullets not only disabled the 
victin, but tended to cause a lingering death long after the casualty had 

been removed from the battle field and ceased to function as €ui offensive 
soldier.

liicse so-called duro d'um bullets were first internationally prohibited by 

the Hague Declaration of lG59 again in the 190? Hag-ue Convention No. F/, 
vhicu stated:

It is empressly forbidden....to eiuploy guns, projectiles
or r/iaterials calculated to cause excessive suffering (Art. 23E)

These prohibitions were ruost recently re-confirmed at the Geneva 

CoiivenLioj.i of 19^9*
iiie Jiiited State® was a signatory to the 1907 Heigue Convention and the 

19^9 Geneva Conventions. The Jnited States has observed the Hague prohibition 
of :Tuj,i dums and US Army directives and manuals have consistently banned their use.

U. S. D. A. Pamphlet No. 2 7-2 0 0, Army Subject Schedule 2 7-1 , and Army 
Field Manual 27 -1 0 all prohibit their use. The most recent of these, D. A.
Pa:-.:. No. 2 7-2 0 0, The Law of Land Warfare - A Self Inatractional Text (1972), 
states that:

...irregular shaped bullets (dum dum) and projectiles filled 
with glass are examples of weapons considered to be illegal per 
se; that is, they may never be used...Misuse of a legitimate 
weapon, such as cutting the points of issued ammunition, is a 
violation of the law of war. (page 5)

Consequently neither hollow point nor soft point ammunition is used by 
US Army troops or military police on foreign or domestic soil.



22

The principles underlying both International and US Army directives 
prohibiting the use of dum dum bullets are the same: even In combat> suffering 
should be minimized, cruel or Inhumane Injury prevented, and life preserved 
wherever possible. When deadly force 9 is used, there is obviously high risk 
of suffering emd death. In neither International law nor US Army directives 
concerning ground combat, however, is this risk of death used as a rationale 
for the use of weapons and aramimition which increases the incidence of fatality 
above the minimum amount of necessary force.

Police officers are often faced with the necessity of using deadly force 
and police directives covering use of deadly force consistently recognize a 
similar desire to use only that minimal amount of force necessary to incapa­
citate an assailant or combatant.

In Standard 2 1 .2 of the Report on Police, the National Advisory Commission
on Criminal Justice Standards and Goals argues that police weapons can only
be used in dire circumstances to protect lives:

...the police fireamii is primarily a defensive weapon Intended 
to protect the lives of officers or other persons.

Tlie District of ColUimbla Metropolitan Police Manual suggests a similar 
minimization of force in Chapter 2 , Sec. 2 .1 . District police are allowed 
io use their weapons only in case of: l) self defense or defense of citizens;
P) arrests to prevent the escape of a dangerous felon (one who took part in 
a felony which involved attac;k) ; 3) killing vicious animals; 1) target 

practice, ‘i'he xManual strictly forbids the firing of firearms: l) to warn;
2) at vehicles, unless in the case of an escaping felon and then only if the 
live'"' of innocenns are not endangered; 3) bhe case of a felony;

A concise definition of deadly force in the context of police work is found 
in Châ ... 3, Ax-tlclc 7 of the Revised Statutes of Illinois: "force which is 
likely to cause death or great bodily harri; includes 1) the firing of a fire­
arm in the direction of a person to be arrested...2) the firing of a flreanu 
at a vehicle in which the person to be arrested is riding."



23

In the case of misdemeanor. Similar directives are in force in most 
states and metropolitan areas.

A police officer furthermore can never Justify an attempt to shoot to 
kill a suspect. As T. Beatty states in "Responsibility of the Police Officer 

in the Use and Handling of His Side Arm", Lav and Order, Vol I9, No. 1 0,
Oct. 1971, p. 58.

When a peace officer shoots a person, his sole intention 
must be to stop that person. If a peace officer shoots to 
kill, he has taken it upon himself to pre-Judge that person 
he has shot.

Similarly, the Sharon, Massachusetts Police Department directive. 
Use of Force, states that:

The police officer’s Job is to bring suspects before a court 
of law to determine guilt or innocence, and not to punish 
because of pre-determined guilt, (peige l)

Shooting to kill is tantamount to summary execution (execution without trial) 
which has long been recognized as a war crime (19L9 Geneva Conventions, Article 3) 

Shooting to kill certainly violates the XIV Amendment of the United 
States Constitution's prohibition against the deprivation of "life, liberty 
or property without due process of law." Such ammunition may also violate 
the VIII Amendment's prohibition of "cruel and unusual punishment".

As a signatory to the I907 Hague and I9L9 Geneva Conventions, the United 
States clearly subscribes to the prohibition of the use of dum dum bullets.

Although it may be argued that such international conventions and 

declarations do not pertain internally, equally clearly, "use of force" 
directives of most American police departments subscribe to the principles 
•mderlying these international conventions. Craelty, inhumane injury and 
death, and excessive force are all prohibited.



2k

These same "use of force" directives and the Amendment of the
Constitution prohibit the taking of life without the due process of law.

Given the inordinate wounding capacity of hollow point and high velocity 
hollow point ammunition, it might well be argued that the use of such 
eunmunition implies an intent to kill.

As may be seen in the succeeding and final section of this Report, 
the use of such weapons and ananunition is far from limited.



VII. Survey Results

25

The Massachusetts Research Center, as part of this study on police 
aiuiiiunition, conducted a survey of all local Massachusetts police departments 

and, for comparative purposes, selected 25 major cities throughout the 
nation. A sample questionnaire and cover letter are attached as appendixes 

I and II. Approximately one half of the cities and towns that have police 
forces (170) were chosen as an Initial respondant group. These police 
forces received a follow-up letter and an additional copy of the questionnaire 
if they had not responded within four weeks of the initial mailing. At this 
point, all other police departments in the state were sent a sur'/ey. After 

an additional four weeks those still not responding out of the I70 were 
telephoned auid inquiries were conducted. There were l82 Massachusetts 

police forces that did not respond to our mailing or in some cases refused 

to give out any information on the subject when they were contacted by phone.

A hfp response (or I63 out of 3^5 cities auid towns) was obtained from 
within Massachusetts and a 72^ response (18 of 2 5) from selected cities 

outside of the Commonwealth.
The survey's main purpose was to find out what police departments were 

using for their ammunition and their side arm. A listing is attached in 
appendix III of those towns responding to our survey and their individual 
answers on weapon and ammunition use. One out of every three responding 
Massachusetts police departments use gither hollow point or semi-wad cutter 
bullets as stsmdard issue ammunition. Twenty per cent of the total responses 
(33 departments) use high velocity, hollow point ammunition. 126 departments 
are using the round nose, solid lead alloy bullets. Of these departments 

using solid lead alloy, ro\ind nose ammunition which answered the question on



26

how they would rank their reason for not changing to another bullet, 65 out 

of 72 expressed their satisfaction with this ammunition. A few police chiefs, 
when surveyed by telephone, expressed puzzlement on why other police forces 

needed to increase their power to the point of using hollow point ammunition. 
Specific information on the type of euiununition used and aggregate answers are 

available by referring to appendix I, question 3 and question 7 j also see 
Table III.

On question #1 concerning the standard side arms being used by 
departments, approximately 26^ (̂ +7 out of I78) make use of weapons other than 
the .38 caliber police special. I3I departments utilize the .38 caliber 

police special, (it should be noted that 26^ is slightly higher than it should 
be as you may note from the figures that several departments have more than 

one type of side arm being used.) Fifteen departments stated they have 
recently considered changing their weapon to a pistol capable of firing a 

higher velocity bullet than the .38 caliber. Specific information on the 
weapon type used and the aggregate answers to questions 1 and 2 are available 
by referring to appendix I; also see Table IV.

TABLE III
Tze6_ of ammunition I63 towns 8e

cities in Mass.

TABLE IV
Type of weapon Number of depts. 

using it
wad cutters 7 .22 caliber 2
semi-wad cutters 7
hollow point 33 .32 2
round nose 126
officers' preference 10 .38 131

.357 magnum 25

.Ll 1

.kk 0
.̂4-5 automatic 2

9 millimeter 5

various pistols 10



27

It is ad.8 0 important to note that in departments in Massachusetts where 

officers were allowed to select their own weapons and ammunition, there was 
a marked preference for .357 magn\im pistols and hollow point ammunition.

Only one of the selected cities outside of Massachusetts permits their police 
to purchase their own weapons and bullets. In the response received from 

Houston, Texas, it was stated:

Officers of the Houston Police Department may carry any 
sidearm they choose as long as it is .38 caliber or 
larger. Tlie majority of patrol officers carry the .357  
magnum. Tlie same holds true for the ammunition. A 
large majority carry hollow point or soft nose ammunition 
as it has more stopping power and there is less chance 
of ricochet.

In response to questions on the reason for the choice of armiunition 

or on the reason for considering changing aiimunition, many different answers 
were given and no findings of a definitive nature can be identified. However, 
the questiomiaire offered the departments varying possibilities for the reason 
■for their selections, including stopping power, shocking power, low ricochet 
potential, officer faihliarity and/or accuracy aid cost an'̂  availability, 
liany departments stated they used tiie .38 round nose lead aJ-loy eurmuni tioxi 
because of its stopping power aid others stated because of officer familiarity. 

In the case of the hollow point aimunition, departments also stated they 

selected it because of its stopping power and others chose low ricochet 
potential. This fact about departments utilizing hollow point bullets 

believing they increase their stopping power by doing so is an indication of 
the confusion around the issue of "stopping" versus "shocking" power. Tliese 
departments choosing a hollow point bullet are increasing their shocking power 

(wounding effect) in actuality.
For those selected cities outside of Massachusetts, it can be stated



28 '

that of the l3 replying, one half (50'̂  or 9 depaurtments) use ammunition other 

than the .3O caliber round nose anmunition. One third of the surveyed 
departments use hollow point bullets. Sixteen of the selected cities use 

the .33 caliber pistol although three departments out of the I6 also use a 
pistol other thaui the -3 3. Three of the departments use the .357 liiagnum and 

six departments use weapons other than the .3O caliber. Again, as with the 

cities and towns,within Massachusetts, five selected cities responding Indicated 

use of the .3 3 lead alloy round nose for its stopping power. Four using the 
hollow point bullet also stated they chose it because of its stopping power 

when in fact they were gaining shocking power (greater wounding effect).



The above picture presents, from left to right, 
the varying types of bullets utilized by 
police forces. They are: (left to right) 
lU8 grain wad cutter, I58 grain (lead alloy)
.38 round nose, 110 grain semi-jacketed hollow 
point, 158 grain semi-wad cutter, I85 grain 
round nose .45 AGP.

This picture illustrates the hollow nose of the 110 grain 
semi-jacketed hollow point.

This picture illustrates enlarged expended bullets recovered from soap blocks. 
(Left to right): .38 125 grain super-vel hollow point, .38 I58 grain round 
nose, 158 grain .3 5 7 magnum hollow point, 158 grain .38 semi-wad cutter.
Note the mushroom effect of the hollow point bullets.

photo 1



The above block of soap (simulating a human target) at left shows entrance 
holes of (top left) .38 125 grain super-vel hollow point; (TOP RIGHT) .38 
153 grain round nose; (BOTTOM LEFT) 158 grain -357 magnum hollow point; 
(BOTTOM RIGHT) .38 158 grain semi-wad cutter.

Block of soap at right shows exit holes of (TOP LEFT) 158 grain -357 magnum 
hollow point; (TOP RIGHT) .38 I58 grain semi-wad cutter; (BOTTOM LEFT) .38 
125 grain super-vel hollow point; (BOTTOM RIGHT) .38 I58 grain round nose.

photo 2



M 'l'I'i'i'N ' W W F F w TJTJTfTi m iM W p i' TJW i|i|i|i|i|i|i|i 'I ' l ’ IM'I'l'l' •1'
1 « 1 _ 2 1 * Q

IN  U S A. O 4 5 6 i -7 1 i g 1 ' 9

This picture illustrates a 3A  inch cavity caused by a 158 grain .38 round 
nose (lead alloy) bullet.

■wjW 2....3 ' -i)'- ' 5 ■ ' '61 ' ' -71 • 8l
This illustration shows the cavitational effects of the .38 125 grain super-vel 
ammunition. The bullet entered at right, causing a 1 3A  inch cavity. The 
cavity gets smaller as the bullet expends its energy.

The above photograph illustrates the cavitational effect of the 158 grain 
.357 magnum. The bullet caused a 2 l /2 inch cavity in the soap. The 
cavity again gets smaller as the bullet expends its energy entering the soap.

photo 3

^



The above close-up photograph is of an exit hole of the I58 grain -357 magnuia 
hollow point. The bullet fragmented in the soap and exited in two places. 
This caused a 1 (one) inch hole in the soap and the fragment (bottom right) 
caused a 1 inch hole in the soap.

photo 4



-  ■  T. t . • i J . •
aiirwori:. 
n ,10.'7 t i V.

If ̂

.U. n
; Lhli

). ■?

1-a

r-tflijoACR'JSiTrrS RSoaaCK CiiHSHIR Apreu>ilx I
3 Joy street

Boston, J'iassac’ausetts 02108
(6 1 7) 523-^760

1. ‘.rhe currant standard issue side arra is:
131 ,33 _L__,1-1 _23.357 21 other (please indicate)

2. Have you r«eceutly considered changing to any caliber other than that

presently Issued? 1 > If so, /̂hat claiber?_____

3. v̂hat type of ainaunltiou is currently standard departnental issue?

3 .

■2 solid lead (lead alloy) round head bullet
__ i_3enii-wad cutter

’ ̂ ;ad cutter
hollow point 

I" other (please state)

_grain
_grain
_grain
_grain
;?raia

riov/ TTould you rank the folloTriaig reasons for selection of present standard 
issue ancunition? (rate in order of importance)

_ topping power (abilit;/ to halt the suspect)
_J~.' shocld.ng pov/er (ability to disable the suspect) 

low ricochet potential 
>_v officer faniliarity ard/or accuracy
> I cost end availability 
___other (please state)
Have you recently considered changing to amunition type other than tiiat

now in use?_____ If so, to \rhat: type_____ hollow pt.)
caliber _____

grain _____

6. If such a change has been nade or is being considered, how would you ranic
the xolloiriT.' reasons for nahing such a change? (rack in order of iinportance)

1̂- rnre stepping power (ability to halt suspect)
no re sliocld.ng power (ability to disable suspect)
lover ricochet potential 
greater accuracy 

II cost
other (please state) __________________________

If the Department is HOT contemplating a change from .38 caliber solid 
ic.2d, ro’jnd nosed anaunltion, how \.'ould you rank the following reasons 
for no? doing so? (ranlc in order of iriportance)

sabisfaction d̂.ta .38 solid, round nosed aimiunition 
29 concern for public reaction if sJ-temative aismunition were used 
2~;̂ excessive dariiage or \/cunding cf person hit by' i/ad cutter cr hollow point 

__23 cost
_2^1ack of officer faniliarit:' or accuracy 'vritli other amunition 
____other (please state) ___________________________________

YfD, the Department Trould like a copy of the final tabTjlatioa of th is

sujr êy. ___



Appendex II li
MASSACHUSETTS RESSARCH CENTER 

3 Joy Street
Boston, Massac'ausetts 02108

(617) 523-̂ <-760

Septeciber 11, 197^

Dear Sirs:
The Massachusetts Research Center is a non-profit, tax exeript, 

educational organization perforr.iing research on various aspects of national, 

state and municipal govemment. The Center lias recently undertaken a study 

of police weapons euid acnunltion use policies throughout the United States.

As part of this effort the Center would appreciate it if you would conplete 
the follo’,d.ng questionnaire and return it in the enclosed postage paid 

envelope.
Thank you vary much for your cooperation and assistance in this natter.

Sincerely,

Tirvothy W, McNally 
Project Coordinator



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iv

Appendix IV; The Semi-wad Cutter

This report, for the most part, restricts Itself to a study and comparison 
of the standard police special ammiuiltlon with higher velocity, hollow point 

ammunition. We have not studied the possible greater wounding capacity of 

soft point, semi-wad cutter bullets. Sufficient documentation and ballistics 
reports have not yet been available to allow the Center to analyze the 
characteristics of this particular bullet.

Our single field test included firings of the soft point, semi-wad cutter 
bullet now used as standard issue by the Boston Police Department. This bullet 
has muzzle velocity only slightly higher than standard round nose bullets and 

in our test firings into soap, performed similarly to the .38 caliber round nose.
We did not, however, conduct tests to demonstrate the performance of 

bullets striking bone within the target. We also did not test semi-wad cutters 
of higher velocity.

It is possible that flattening or mushrooming may take place with a semi­
wad cutter, if it strikes bone or if it is fired with a higher velocity. With 

more extensive testing this will be examined. Higher velocity semi-wad 
cutters are manufactured with a higher muzzle velocity than the one used by the 
Boston Police Department.

The Center plans to continue its study of the seiril-wad cutter bullet ‘ 
and will issue the results as an.addendum to this report.



BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books, Digests and Pamphlets

Amber, John T. Gun Digest, Northfleld, 1 1 1., Digest Books, Inc. 197 *̂
Army Field Manual 2 7-1 0, Department oT the Army, Washington, D.C.
Army Sub.^ect Schedule 2 7-1 , Department of the Army, Washington, D.C.

Beatty, Tliomas, Lav and Order Magazine, Vol. 1 9, No. 1 0, October, 1 9 7 1-
Beyer, J. C. Wound Ballistics, Office of the Surgeon General, Department 

of the Army, "Military Medicine", September, 1 9 5 5*
Department of the Arr..y Pamphlet 2 7-2C0 , The Lav of Land Warfare.
D»muth, Williajii "Ballet Velocity and Design as Determinants of Wounding", 

Journal of Tra-gr.a, Vo 1. C, No. 2 , 1966.
Dimaio, V. J. and Spitz, U. "Unusual Fireariiis and Ammunition." Journal of 

?or>»n8ic Science, Vol. 1 7, p* 377-3 6, July 1 9 7 2.
Frencn, Major Ralph W. and Callender, Brig. Gen. George R. Ballistics

Cnarac Leristics of Woundirig Agei^ts, Office of the Surgeon General, 
D«partm'=»nt of the Army, Washington, D.C.

Paust, Jor'^an I-egal Memoranduj, on Police Use of Dum Pur, or Similar Bullets, 
Prepared for the Connecticut C.L.U., June, 197 î--

Remington Arms Company, Ballistics Information, Bridgeport, Connecticut,197^
Report on Police, The National Advisory Commission of Criminal Justice 

Standards and Goals, Standard 2 1 .2 , 1973*
Spiliotls, P. J. Lav and Order Magaizlne, Vol. 2 1, No. 1 0, October 1 9 7 3-
Super Vel Cartridge Corp., Centerflre Handgun Ballistics, Shelbyville, 

Indiana, 197 *̂
ihe Police Chief Magazine, pages 2 6-2 7, June 1 9 7 3*
Use of Force, Sharon Police Department, Sharon, Massachusetts 197 *̂
Willia.:is, Mason,. Lav and Order Magazine, Vol. 2 0, No. 1 , June 1 9 7 2.

Wintiirop, Col., Military lav and Precedents, Government Printing Office,
2nd edition, 1920.



Declarations andL Conventlops

1848 Universal Declaration of Human Rights; Article 5.
1863 Lleter Code (pi^^mulgated "by Abraham Lincoln)
I86S Declaration of St. Petersburg

1899 Hague Convention
1907 Hague Convention No. r / .

1949 Geneva Convention; Article 3*
1950 European Convention of Human Rights; Articles 3 and I5.

19^8 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights;
Articles 4 and 7

1969 Convention on Human Rights: Articles 5 and 27.

0

Names of medlceJ. examiners ve consulted eure on file.