Attorney Notes on Hearings

    L(aAL tNG e,

.+. rlo-1.". Acs ,q*o"n*

Z. A"s'\lr, Tes,l- / T*at.\ of C,.6u\^^-s[ru-, I c'l*-

3 . ?^(o.\-s'',.ra-\ C&-p .e-r-*\-\n-i.

4. Rc'ctcJ B\o- Vo{i%/ ?ob,nnz,ad vDh \ /uok },lufuv
q. f...olr\^:*r\ Ra,nr.itzrs .



!r, VoL+r Assisla,tau-

Apper^dr+ {" Sb-hlMu,"l U.1 Bcurnte T\oru-(sd' o* Stoo

The winning black candidates had been lulled into a sense of

=.li:.:1:I_t_:g:Iqr,rg 
t}eir primary victory. Hererofore victoryrn t.ne prrr.a-ry had been tantamount to etection, and. it h,asurlikely tiat tlre bl.ack canclidaies could riuster as inany votesfor a ge;,erai elecij.on contest as they had for their piinaryelection. ttany col-lege students cho irad voted in the'priraa'ryuould be out of state.Horking irr summer jobs by.lune 5. Fur'ther,tle nanner in which the three eLection c6mmissioners had beenappointed suggested that the whites might attempt to stear thegeneral election. Itary of the blacks rrho hai ,oted in theprimary feLt free to vote for the cildioates of tf,eii cnoice,.bgcause tranagers had been serected to assist brack illiteratesNh- had the mnfidence of tjre blact< comnuity. The threeelection corMijssioners naneo to conducL t}Ie gcneral eLectiondid not have ..he confidence of the black comnmj.ty, and thairpresence in the oolli-ng p1ace, or their manner in-assj.stingil-literate blacks, would-deter man), blacks from voting, or-from voting for tle candidates of -their 

chorce,

{)*,re5a $wrelha o.-t fl'|-l

8r7

It'. Burroughs'

TESTIMONY OF THERESA BURROUGHS

,'?u*l?:gri^Yv^,:1T"^'i"T:*'il,:x::tlilfrltJ":fl 
"1"",[i;fr;1"'6;"ti,-eia. i ,- chairmariof. the. board .of,th,9

ffi;1; ci;. r'"p-.i.i*u"t I*"g.r". Y.. "* i" lk !]TLP.I
Li""i#*t;l;_tr_l* $:^i -uioiitv' Hale countv has a popu'

-*t,ict, is 63 Percent black.
,;;;;;; il6ii';a i" the struggle to get black people.regis-

ilr;;^;;-d "t".t"a 
t" office.fdi manv--vears' I marched withL;e[ili1vo.lve.{,ilt!:-:!'}e_et:l:..s:*l"1k3;'fl :

J to vote and elected to ottlce lor man)- vears' I marcrreu wrl

'u?',i i"t, itt;' EG iio.n s"t'n " t Y:.1 !qg-." t, ::l 1e-65; 3ilcrtin Luther ll'rng rrom Delma L'u lv'turrt'E,vursrJ ,r LUvv'-LL

;il;';;b' 
-r-69-"t-.s'a 

!t"St. were registere{ to lgt l -!3t:'."Afi"rit " Voting Rights Act passed we immediately regis-

2.ooo blacks.
#i6, ii y;;;s after the act passed, we elected.the flrrstllacks

%:;"'w; ;6;J-;i"ck persoirs as mavor and town council in

ffi : :, ;F ;i 
- 

6 0 r- * *: l^' :I :.."- 
bk5 k' ::"^,?^'^ -n'ii l:":r,:h:

ffi *r,trn,:l'di?,tEli11{+iiii'r"1:::l,HFLTB-nei

1980,-ih" person over the. box Yould nol.le,t.lilglate

lilr"#'il; ;;l;.;;il t^i the office t-ith loads of people to get

i frg* 11""1::l' f,liJs'*:*i :li tili&'f {,iili;n in N ovembei-

-#sfiltH*##*l*;-*r:'yfu;'i1,,,;;-i.ifi-t" tt-1980 elections thev put notices in the

3-:ilp;;;;;"i',t1"n tii"v *"'" rot there', $.: l"=^11-li".T*:

=* 
r*ffiT"fHHH##SHi ;:?id*ffi **ffia-.r,.

ffiO'rffieatened by the.police that wg.willEilia * ffieatened by the police that $'e w'Ill

f.[i;; t"l.ii, ."a *" have been ,...rt"d of el;ctioneering. With-
[r*til!"nl:ri? ;h;.luiiice Department and the exrension of the

il"ii,^g n'i"gflt^.-'a.il Utr.t r fi ili; South would be in pretty bad

Aape.

@,.igft-
ft-d G.oy ^+ e4'l

Poll workers often retuse to allow voters who are iliiterate or
who need assistance in voting to eelect Eomeone of their own choos'
ing to assist them.

Rw \de- a+ EttS f trla't"s I u oV' ^(s) 
]

Mr' Hvor. Well, I have no specific questions other than to extend

-;-;p;;;iutioir--'rot- tr," t5'-* of-vbur statements' and all the

etatements *;hu; fr"*a t"auy. I-know there is another panel

;,hi;h I canno-t i"*ri, to.. It is ve* illuminating,-and I appreciate

ii.-i-j"rt want-to-comment parenthltically that what may be good

i" ori" section of tt 
" 

country may be abuded in another. Assistance

,otl"g, 
-r* 

"*u*pi", 
*t ict you hare stated is desirable where- you

;;,'i".';;; ;i t|[, ,,,oit-uu"iud things up in mv jurisdiction where

the precinct 
".p-t"in 

goes in and seei hoit' 19u vgte and makes sure

;;'-;;;';i;ht;"d rial'be votes for vou' That -happens under the
';;. ;i';:i;;i"s p.dE liom other c6untries who db not speak the
irr*"n.. li -uI to d good thing as I say in some ju.rlsdictions, and

il^;ili; uu".la;-dh;;- Bui what you have Lold us has been

very important, and I thank You.



U) Vde-4l Ass *la-q* , ud+

Dq/^fe.lr, t'taLc.oA- CA*6e.^S.c.) a-l lrlb3 f rroptps'l''"f
"'in iu.,, ti,"-iuitfrf"lness of South Carolina submissions n'as noted
[: a footnote in a Supreme Court decision in which it was stated
that South Carolina was the only State falling within the scope of
the act u'hich had consistently complied *'ith the act.

Since the implementation of the act, there have only been two
@unties in which Federal observers have been sent into South
Carolina, during the years 1966, 1968, 1970, and 19?2, and the
entire episode was concluded without rancor.

There vyas only one actual lau'suit which
courts at that time to clarify the numbers of
L admitted within the votins booiE-ffilTE

and complied u'ith.
There have, in the 16 years of the coverage of the act, been ver5

feu' complaints regardins votins riehts problems made to m-v office

??L P cC\osbe,,,, qf t{rr 6rn- oqp. &-^' tD b"\ ,tw..[ tuvvtstt'&s]

Mr. Eowanns. Thank you ,ery much, Mr. McCloskey.- -,
bne of the previous viitnesses mentioned the Federal cases' O.-," \

i.iorres v. Sichs. The other is the Puerto Ric:an Organization for 
"

*priiticot 
Action v. Kusper. n'here the court said that -if q-person

*'ho .u.,not read English is entitled to oral assistance-; if a Negro is

"niitt"a 
to correction of erroneous instructions,-so a Spanish-speak-

Ine Puerto Rican is entitled to assistance in the language he can
read or write or understand--Would 

not your suggestion vioiate what the court has held? You
are going to five a S!6nishspeqking American citizen born in San -
Jose or San Mateo no assistance.--Mr. McCrosxn. Vfeth-ifthe person Ls born here' he is required
ro go to school until the age ol i6 in the State of California in a

actr"oot system in which we are going to break our backs to give him
oroficiency in the English language so that he can earn a living,
lrra if at ihe age of tt that person has not pursued the course of
study in the English langpage that we spent so .ryucl, money to
make available t6 him, then i-ha"e no s1'mpathy with that person's
inabilitl' to find and understand the materials on horl' to vote.

It seems 10 times more important that that person who is born
here and gone through a sihool system for 16 years have the
abilit.v- to eirn a living and have the economic opportunity without
whicli he or she carinot have without an understanding of the

?Z

court rn

was ht in the
rSONS

atint
'a judgment *as handed dou,n

langua.ge.

llanQt| f?rlzer*v*
o[\' t(letr

)oe R€ert- ar} l<31 ( sep- o,Iso iM'ul"-td Va"vrv'^rs ) ? 2)

ArDttEr prcbla ti.t hr8 [) urpar advenely at bbd(s lrgistering

!: l,cte is ttE 1ac* of blnc*.s sw'ang on Bcrds of Regostrars ard i:: al+li 1jq1 gp

Idl of blaciG t€ddng a eLecLio, officiaLs. While I yj.LI ccrsde tiat tlEre

p biacf<s rcdcing .ra elELicn officiete b a f6, ccr.rrties, ia rrct o.nties

Irr*s are rarely selsted to E* as polfhg officr.t<, ad tili-s tgras tr' cUft

Iad. participatitrr iJI tlc politirr prGss. t{e stiu ha\E sitrEtjcrs

iEe polie ard otfier la enforss! 6ffici:1s aE patrolljrg polLi:a

FIls b+E it is &\ricns tlEt tlEE is rc m for tleir beiDg th.

trEE cas6, h,tEje bla*s |EE scright to ssist otlEr bla(*s in r.s-JJE

iij baljrts, tlse blad<s hrtE b .rrEt d or otlErvir. irrti.nid.td.

1566

. We still use paper ballots Moreover, for lack of a better term. we
have open house voting in- Pickens Count-v Ala. In most pollini
places there is no privacl, whatsoever. I mean whatsoever.
- For.e:ampler i-f I vote at the armory, I must go there and go to

the table which has the letter B. I and all the other voters tohce
name end in B must mark our ballots in the presence of othen
using the same table.

For those folks who cannot read, it is very discouraging becauee
these folks often are readily turned off by new schemis 1o ha"G
black voters.

During the 1980 election last fall, blacks seems to be the only
ones u'ho were questioned about who n'ould be providing assistancs
to voters.

In a44ition. the standards for assisting voters was changed by
local officials.

People who were to provide assistance were required to stand an
unreasonable distance away from the polling place. I happened to
be one. The; were often r+'atched by a deputy sheriff on duty ar the
poiling place.

- 
In m1' case particularly, the deput-v sheriff took pictures of me-

!f .vou wili. we are willing to share them with you--and all of the
folks I assisted in voting.

- Has-this committee ever heard of such?



tr) Vole^r Asgtsh/tta' , c-r*'f

Motlrs RozPauurrtcmL+, -l tsneC

Absentee ballots. In Pichens County in 1980 the sheriff deputies
,,eie instructed to visit the homes 6f dt black families who re
ouested absentee ballots. The whole idea behind this move t'as to
d"t"r-i"" if there were people who got absentee ballots who were

in town on the day of election.
In addition to ihis, legal harassment can result from voter par'

ticipaiio, in Pickens Cointl'. I can -testify to that because I, sought

to educate black people regarding how they can vote an absent€e

baIIot.- gl. aoi"g so, I was hauled into court and accused of fraud along
with Mrs. Julia Wilder.

ffr" Loard of elections released me once an indictment was made

about chargesregarding absentee ballot distribution'
Just beirig a ,bter in- Pickens &g!t." is a *,earying experience.

Sometimes i feel like giving up' but I keep going on'

- Un eEislglanrr.e-JouDg. r nevrvery mtxed t-eElffiSteeause I can
tetl yoiiEilE ne.1: abused up in m)' area where the polling
o,orliei-dous the ioiing for the'voter-makes sure--th-ey vot,e for
the right part-v--now, ie have heard where it is all done on the
table: there is no privacl'.

That is outrageous. absolutel.r, outrageous: yet do you ii'ant to say

something. Mr Reed. about assisr.ance voting?
Mr. Rern. Yes, sir
O"" tfri"g.ln Alabama a vorer has the-right-to select a person of

his ihoosinE ro assist him. In other words,lohn Jones can.get his

-ott "r, 
br6ther. cousirr, anyone he wants to take in to h-elp him.- *h;i hupp"r., we have fbund pome resistance from poliing.offi'

cial-. on ttiil, Uut the attorney [eneral and the laws have been

ini".pi"t"a to mean that a voter Ean get the person of his choosrng
t,r help him

Ui,'fti'pr I u'ouid 1iire-l think rhar is a good idea Il should be

anvone but a poliing official
Mr. Rmo Right.
I1;. A-r;; Tire p,liing offici4 is there Lc) see you vole right and

n.)'! ro ca-st the vbre fbi you. That is an abuse in m1- .rudgment.
Mr. Rrno. We agree u'ith -'"ou.
Mr. Hr-or. Thesi are ver) serious cnarges and fact's

P,3

\4"', tcsq.rrr$- \c,

Bozc.,.ovr , a* tfgLl

Ital e*A$w[o,'ron (gu. ol 9, sl-q care) c* rlb3
-tlr.-Hvos. Don't they get into the booth with them and assistr\em there?
lls. BucHaxe.x. we h,ave a provision now in colorado, statutes-

lrt y.vs a famil-v member maylas may a iuage Ji-the 
"o6.,. o*oriocrng ,,ur_ onr-v uncrer one of' the two of those circumstances.

Mr .Hyor. I suppose if the voter chooses the J-udg;;-til;;iF;
Ele,-but-we hale the. experience in chicago ,f tt*'*!i"t""ce voter
@ally doing the voting- And that can be"an abu"e, tor*..''

I suppose in communities where there are rilgi;fig"age minor-
ry.,Froury. it is,n't 

-m.uch gf.-a problem to prod"u.. i"'.iiof th;
fffi'k:i:i;,',xtf!,'&".T,1*'m, 

j:*,ff, jIlJdseewhereit
Ms. Bucn,lN,c'N. It shouldn't be.a plob]1-.-ifirr"y have enough

rynu,Igt1on of thar language-minority, it stouia ue ;;ry';;, and it
1g:X T- t'ury eas.r. tor the political parties, each- of t'hem, toItcrurr one.



Sta-k-1^*^t a$ QetU; Sc,<tenslc;a ?tab' t5?

existence of a discriminatory 6ystem'

138

Finally, we support a position that seeks to change the standard- f91 nlovilg
discrimination from that fi;;;;e bi the Supte'ne Court in Mih'l: ::{',/9"1.1: 'tt'H;'#i'|,Hh',"iirr"i priJi.'m il;i.;;. tn'1e?3, in White.v Regester, the.sup.rehg

L -rr rL^ -^^,.,- rLo+ h,rhornrrc fact.ors. includinc direct and indirecflrectd';;i;;i;;il-ir," po.iiion that num.erous factors' lnclyal15

;ffii;',h";'i;;;". ;-;.ti"rru. result, e'g,..thil !l-",.'."^-P:-:l:-p:*:::\rrs't Llrat xudrarr!EG'- 'rIi';h;;'"'a co"ttii"tional right to change an electo*lgioup -u.t be elected. I ... . ^r .u^i !,^ ^ranrorr A-::iltx"".,'ffi;;-#;;;i il;;;tbl;}oi" '""-b.'.of 
that sroup to- be elected An6

;f";"1'#;ii;'r';;;;d; ;;;LFli't shndard which can be used to indicate the

;;;ff;;;la-'[" iiir"ar""d to establish the existence of voting discrimination ]1

Bolden, the Court -uint"-li!a if,J".ty direct evidence of specific intentto discrimi'

;;;;-'i "i"quut". 
This is' a diin."ti standard requiring that plaintiffs prove a

",;;i";";-.;te of mind. Such a standard not only contradicts the intent of the

iJ-tfi;i1;; f"i' ,ra"i-ir*-iii"-riii,tv o-f the Jusiice Department to enforce it--'ffrii 
lrru" is sometimes conlusingty"referred to as a conflict between an intent

standard of evidence 
"na"u 

r".rft s"tindard of evidence. There is no constitutional

J.l\:qrrB""J

.-! 2.1 1

trtr**,, l'\artt\- ( Uar.1,rt o[ Rtctru r*/ , uA L+ 3bt
- Im appearing today before the Subcommittee on Civil and Con-
Gtutional lights to voice my wholehearted support for the exten-
tng of the Voting RighLs Act. Specifically, I support H.R. 3112, the

*-lodino bill which would extend-the preilearance provisions of the
-r-t.for 1^0 years and remedy the long history of conflicting irrt"rp"e-'ttion of section 2 of the act. The Ilodino bill would clarify section
i I eo that it permits an effects test rather than an intenl test, in
Llder to prove voter discrimination.:*!ri9r to the Supreme Crcurt decision in Mobite v. Bolden, plain-
..{ffs in- voting rights cases could presen, a variety of factors to
"*oy thgt a voting law had the 6ffect of discriminating against
tlacks. Should the intent standard prevail, however, it "woritd 

be
ortremely difficult to prove voter discrimination absent a confes-
:g! of intent by a voter official. I support the extension of the
P.ttmgual provisions of the act which are due to expire in 1985 sothat they are coterminous with the original provisi,ons of ,|:__"!rC

2. Pes,lls Tcsf, / fr+*t1 J Ctrc*n*z*tt-oz / ,z

0r>t{. }li^.,.Ltc\ o-,t tcl-l LLea.1*- %-,^!o* vo\.-t)
And the league also supports the amend:

I oent to section 2, which would clarify what we believe to be the
risinal intention of Congress that both existing and new instancee
d voting discrimination can be proved by showing direct and indi-
lrt evidence of discriminatory effect. This change is necessary in
rder to restore the protections against voting discrimination that
rre in effect before the Supreme Court's decision in City of Mobilc -t Bolden.

^t:21
In conclusion, members of the committee, Iet me 

- 
express my

rppreciation for'the QPPortunity to share.my views and some.Pelti-
nent facts with you. I urge not only to continue the act, but toDent tacts wlth you. I urge you no[ only L(

trengthen and clarify all of its provisions.
I refer to section 2. whose applicationsI;6il;ii;;-i, *t*" aiplications as i! regards-intelt has

*;;tltb."t 
"f,.it"rrg"d 

throu6[L action tn Mobilel- Boldcn' I"t,q"
:tdt"inake your intintlons tliat r.elate to that provision,pe{ry1!
itd bt;Liti"i ihe etrects standard, as proposed by ttre distin'
3Uisted chaiimai of this committee, C-ongressman Peter Rodino.

Mr. "B"oNo. congressman, I thin-k you have heard it said before
how-difficult it is"to prove intent lf j'ou were to leave this building

"na 
ro-"ore were t6 put a pistol in your side and relieve you of

vor.-*uii"t and that pbrson were to be caught, if you had to prove

i";il- th^t t ir int6nt was to relieve you of your ruallet rather
th* l"i, oioduce the effect, the wallet- in his hand, the _witness
ff;'J;'h!;;ith it" gn. the fact that vou ha-d !he. wallet and

oo* aon'f t ave it. if yori had to prove his intent I don't think you
would ever claim your wailet.

yf. ;gNcnrN. Il would be proved to m]' satisfaction'
ili;: B;";. J don't think fou could piove it in a court of law'
Mr. LuNcnrx. I underst"t9..



C2) Re; o t l" Tas*

,S^b t{o,..,,rsh , a-{ 3lr 1

.ppearlns,tod€vy*':*::"H:m'H*,1"3id"iifl .*rfff i$"fiUit:t'^Xf
ill-"'i,"ot. t:t*{

4%*

J".L 6r"e-w\tt\ 0'L tlL+ -42{
3. Standord ,f Pruf

The inadequacy of litigation as an aII P-urpce cure for voting rights litigation has

*,r%r##1 "#'#: 
ff J'*l ;';m:r** **i'.4?: T*,fts g

voting righrs cases must ffiil;.i;;ilHi ;;iil*;i-inah invidiously bn the basis

r a.por color. Moreover, the plaintiffs are not permitted to make this showing by!,'--J-"ertain forms of circumstantial evidence which ordinarily might evidence

*? di the requisite intent. The decision in -Bolden will inevitably make voting

ffir"ir,'*,"#.',':""'T'S3;,T:J",ojll'fi :l';'1l3,I",ilitff 
nii,T,,"**nsivemethod

*-i,f,iii, the federal government can prevent electoral changes from taking places
? irr"i"a .iurisdiction where the purpose or the effect of the change is to deny or

Hkir'Ho::'#5,'k'iEfj.T,[%:';,;?':iin"'l]lt"o,ll:'*'i*;'#1,'ffitlil*'tl:
ffi"i",ii. i;;tratction ana iG rrilr." to remedy. tlre continuing eff6cts of its past
icriminatory actions. Section 5 accomplishes this result by putting the burden on

ffiiocality t6 sho',r, that it has )egitimate governmental interests to support ador
Ii" 

"ff 
th6 proposed changes in its election practices and procedures.

"ini mtabn case, which is presently on trial again in the district court in Ala-
uma follo*ing remand-^from th.e Supreme Court, is a good illustration of the

i-i,frcrlti". whith plaintiffs in voting righ-ts suit ca1 glpec! to_encounter in success-
i.ii.. 

"rosecutinq 
cases in the absence of section 5. Tbe Bolden case is one of our

I'";'W" expect to prevail in the district court and expect the judgment to be

f;fr."ia on "pi*ql 
However, the new standards of proof forces us to expend.inordi-

fli" ,-ounis of monev in order to hire historians and others to exaine the history
t"t*tion laws.and procedures in.Mobile. This is almost the only way in which
intpnt to discriminate can be proved.-'iii" i""t that we may ultimately prevail on the merits in Bolden will be cold
comfort to the black voters in Mobile who continue to labor under a political regime
ii which they do not adequately participate.

To the extint that the expiratibn of the Voting Rights Act would make the courts
the orimary defense against violations of the right to vote, that course must be
i'L.Ga Tlie overclogg6d dockets of the courts is-an argument against sending all
.iiims of deprivationi of voting rights to the courts. Moreover, the elimination of
Gtion 5 would place the burden of proof on the wrong part;-. The genius of section
5-1" ttat it places the burden ofproofon the party best ableto satisfy it sir-rce the
offending locality normally has the requisite evidence to show its intent in effectuat-
ine a uotirrg change or to show that the change does not unjustifiably affect
adi'erse)y the voting rights of minorities.

al q2-]

J,We are for extending the bilingual provisions so they will expire
Jtcrminously with the basic act, and, finally, we-support an
hendment to section 2, which would enable the court to invali
}[c voting practices or procedures with the purpose or effect of
Irgial 9jscrimination or discrimination against oth^er minorities.

?2

? rrt .-6no6kr onn e\ 4s +
I say thrs.lgCely because I do not think that l4th and l5th

amendment litigation has provided a very' effective check 
"g"ins;these types of factors. I speak^now ?s a p6litical scientist, noI as alawyer. But as the supreme court has 6onsistently tord us inTlri

lq9( few yeprs, dil-utive consequences are not enorigh in latli- ani
15th amendment litigation, but rather Rfaintiffs niust prove one,
purposeful discrimination, a!d two, that ihat discriminafory intenj
w^qs .a.major motivation in the decision or the action takei by the
officials.

A showing gf q natural or foreseeable c_onsequence of a change in
terms of discrimination is not sufficient. But nbw the plaintiff iluiiprove that the decision or the action made was in part because of
those consequenc?s.. And the evidence of that must 'be independeni
from the effects of the voting change.

I believe that this is an extremity difncult burden of proof, an
e-xtremely d{ficql.! evidentiar.y hurdle for plaintiffs, a it^.rd".d
that is not often likely to- be satisfied. Decisionmakers simpry have
to first, cover their tracks and second, mask or cleanse'p-ossible
discriminatory motives by asserting some permissibre nonracial
motivations.

.I.really' do not think that is very difficult to do. I am afraid that
without the__preclearance requirement being retained in the exten-
sion of th.e voting Rights Aci, the new blac[ r'oting strength in the
south will become extremely vulnerable to varidus vot6 dilution
mechanisms, and the recent'gains we have seen in the south will
be put in serious danger.



0\ Qes.,ll5 Tcslr c,rr,'|

Ja^n^es B.rskel ( *ta.sl",.lc e*.e.) a-{- t$a.
I represent a districi in the city of Mobile^, and, since. my career

in-potitlc. has been in that city, I am quite.familiar with a.law-suit

c"fiea Mobile v. Bolden. In my judgment the decision re-ndered by
the supreme court at that time was probabJy.the worst that I have
*ii"eiiea. While urging the continuation of the Voqng RiShts Act,
I must also strongly urge you to amend section 2 of the act to
.o"foi* with secti-on S ana inake clear that Congress. prohibits any
practice which is racially discriminatory, whether in purpose c
effect.- 

Froving the discriminatory iltent of practices that.{eny minority
uot"r. cf,oice in the electoral process is a terrible and unfair
burden that Congfess must repudiate. Voting practices, and the at'
iarge system in "particular, haye gpelg.ted to deny black electon
it el. ct oice of candidates for the Mobile City Council for over 70

t;;;. We must urge the Co!'ress.to remedy^t|ls-rrievous.and
iroirendor. situatioi. Some cliim the State of Alabama and its
iocat j"riraictions are now adhering c-Iosely to.the letter of the
Voiing Rights Act, and that the State should no longer be^ required
to submit-electoral changes to the Nation's chief law enforcement
offic"r for review. I dispite those claims. The section 5 provisions

of tfi" act have been and remain vital to the effectiveness of the

iaw, The significant progress made by blacks in democratic partici-
priion is cfinstantly'thr:eatened. Ten counties in central Alabama
fi;i tr; have heaid testimony on this mornilB and this afternoon
iiu"""*ujoiity black populations and blacks have finally attained
office in various .apicitie. in each of those jurisdictions' Yet, I
have no aouUt that'blacks would quickly lose such politTal foot'
holds if Federal preclearance requirements were removecl lrom t'ne

Iaw.

I believe tir, r*tion 2 of the Voting Rights Act, which f .tt;
seneral p.ot iliiio" against abrifuemenl of voting .iqht , ,could be

itrengthi ned, ben efrcially strengthen ed, 
- 
either through q 9ry"q"^ I

wordihg, perhaps, or a ciea_r legislative hislory that woultl_ g,v-e tne
courts bed;gfii4""." i" it"ir"interpretation of this troubled pro
vision.'-ii-yo, 

know, section- 5 of the 14th amendment gives ft"ff=
the p6wer to outlaw discriminatory practices.. even where those
piactices "'o"fi-"J "".""i".11r- 

vioiate the 14th or 15th amend-
ilent" of the U.S-Constitution is interpreted by the Federal courts'
H;;;";;, ;i; ,;i'ii;e Votte Rlglits -Aqt h1s been interpreted
[t I[" ",iu"r "i-p]y 

to restate t'he llw of the Constitution against
discriminaii", i"'"6t*g- practices-notably, as you are aware, the
Mobile v. klden case_-1,""a 

y;;;h;-s"preme c.ourt in that case decid_ed that in order
to ehov' tnl 

"iofati5n-of "oting 
rights under the Constitution, and

906

?,3

under section 2 of the Voting Rights Act, a private plaintiff had to
show that there was a subjective intent to discriminate.

Let me pause from my testimony right there and say that I think
it is very important, either by express language or legislative histo
ry, that there be a private cause of action under section 2 of the
Voting Rights Act. If the committee is successful, as I hope it will
be, in clarifying the law in this area so that the courts are given
eomewhat more leeway under section 2 of the Voting Rights Act to
frnd a practice of discrimination than they are under the 14th and
15th amendment, you see. So if you are able either through some
change in the wording or through the legislative history to make
the coverage of section 2 of the Voting Rights Act greater than the
14th and 15th amendments, then make quite clear, please, that
private plaintiffs have a right of action under that section.

The Supreme Court in the Mobile v. Bolden case says "well,
maybe they do" and dropped a footnote, or "maybe they don't."
That's my point.

Proof of subjective intent to discriminate is very difficult, as you
know. We have come a long way from the time at which, for
example, the mayor of the city of Richmond in the 1960's could
justify the annexation of a white suburb after blacks became a
force in city politics by saying, "As long as I'm the mayor of the
city of Richmond, the niggers won't take over this town." I think
it's worthwhile to point out at this point that some of these people
who think it's so ridiculous to have the Voting Rights Act extend
to annexation ought to consider some of these historical incidents
before they make that type of generalization.

Modern discrimination against racial and ethnic minorities is
likely to be subtle and unexpressed rather than stated in the press
and in the chambers of government. As a result, it becomes ex-
tremely difficult and in some cases nearly impossible to prove
subjective intent to discriminate, even where the facts fairly and
clearly indicate that intentional discrimination might have been in
the minds of the officials in charge of voting practiEes. I t



G) Res., tls Test

$J[a.^- uJuL of qob unrtl
)

Perhaps the prime examples ol'cases in which a burden of show-
i"s iubilctive intent to diicriminate becomee almoot impossible is
;1;E g;; of at-iarge elections, which I am sure you- considered at
i""gth ei the sta"tistics noted earlier concerling atJarge elections
il-ffi.d-.chool boards indicated, at-large elections can have the
;Tf".a ;a preventing access by minoritieJ into leadership. positions
i" i1npo"iunt cominunity inititutions.- If at_-large elections have
G"n-it"-iule since the'application of the Voting_Rights Act to
t;;;, there is no opporirinity for the Justice .Department to

"-"-"-i""' 
these piactices'under th6 peclearance.provisions of section

ts, ,-." ttli" h* b""n no chanie_in the votingpractices. There-
il;--;h";;i"uiu tut"t"it is the 6nly means to -effectively remedy
any discrimination that would occur.-_NJ", in man-v co,rtties in rural Texas it is well recogniSed that
th; ;;;d;;inant engio and h!'toricallv the subordinate Mexican
I;";i;; ilpulationi have led indepeirdent existences This is a

iril".;;i flii, and questions such as- the effect or intent of an at-
ili!";;h;t eieitio"'system should not be analvzed ,outside of that
L""1. friito.ical contexl. I think the gentleman from Wisconsin.-this
;;";;-*t"r" f"ia-* might be distinguished from some of the

9r'

lHt'tr1il;i,!"r:xTiTilf ;Hi.!;l'*ffi3'*',J"f i,xx""T**
i i-jr"t a fict that vou have had two communities leading inde
I#;*,-"iftun.". in'which one communit;- has had the poier for

ryT";*? like that, how would vou gq about showing intent?

Ni, under prese.nt law, the answer to thlt 
^question . 

is unclear.
aJ tlre case ol' White v. Register, the Fifth Circuit Court of
iiFab tried to devise a test that would allow. private Iitigants to
f,Jf,onstrate when these- at-large. elections denied members of mi-
iiiiv groups access to le.adership in.political. positions, including
;[A Soards._A-s.y9u --ig]t^]e-familiar with, this was a. fairly
Et"it"a ht_-I think the Fifth Circuit y?". very -conscientious in
6[regard. They wanted to avoid the crilicism, -whigfr might have

f,r", ,Ilid, if _tl1e.y 
failed-to devise a specific test for discrimination,

fiat they would just be deciding cases_b] the seat of their pants. So

rlrey hail some very specific. jurisprudential rules for determining
-[ere there was discrimination.-The 

Mobile v. Bolden case makes clear that this multifaceted test
&vi6ed by the Federal courts in this part of the country was wrong
orrt"." it focused-and I -would say, from reading parts of the
ooinion-almost exclusively on the element of subjective intent.
ihat confused decision, which was supported by only a bare major-
itv of the Supreme Court, strongl-v suggests that a court inferring
discrimination only from discriminatory effects risks reversal. Con-
sress, in its extension of the Voting Rights Act, can give to future
buru and future litigants some guidance as to hovv intent to
dirriminate might be Proved.

I{'e propose that the legislative history of the Voting Rights Act
make clear that the test of discriminatory intent under section 2 of
the Voting Rights Act should contain the follou'ing elements:

Pirst, the voting practice at question should be in some sense
lbnormal, not the type of practice that is routinely encountered in
the political process. I believe that the use of at-large elections in
this day and age should automatically qualifl' as an abnormality' in
tlre political process. Certainll' you wouldn't tolerate it in Congress
nor', would you?

Second, the voting practice at issue should have an adverse effect
on minorities. This is the second prong of a three-pronged test. To
aatisfl' this test, a plaintiff wouid prove that members of minorit-v
groups are not proportionally repiesented'in the poiiticai process
and, in addition, p-erhaps, that the ini,erest of minorities had been
ne_glected compared to the interest of the majority group. \

Let me just make a note here. I don't think courts-this would
be a very tough decision for courts, but it's an evaluation the
court-s have been able to make, notably, for example. in the White
t. Register case. rrhere thel'analvzed the fact that Mexican Ameri-
cans l:ad not had a significant impact on the politicai process in
the-cit1, of San Antonio-. The Supreme Court *'ai able ro make that
finding in rhat case.

Third, u'here there is a practice that is found to be abnormal and
u found to have adverse effecrs on minorities. it should be consid-
ered discrirninatory if it were not supported bv an1' other poiicl'
that could not hav6 been achieved bv diother al'ternitive. This tesi

P,,{
, Lotr, 

tI



[4 Resolk feqY ,+

rrJ rlharn, I'0h'14 , ^t 
L, o.l 1Of

eo8' 
I

resembles somewhat the less ,o*r",rrn" alternative t""t ,rsed tg testj
*t 

"lt 
ei 

".rious 
regplations violate th_e first amendment. Yet, if

the state or localtf has an important.state interest that can_only
U" f"*t 

"""a 
by thL practice in questio-n, tt "! evidence of effecG

aio"e st o"ta n6t Ue sufficient to ihow discriminato* rltent. How-

"r"i, if 
the abnormal. practice with discri*i!3torl effect is not,

necessary, or rs scarsely necessary, to acc-omplish^ the purpose by;
*t ict ii 'is justified, lhis is strong evidence of discriminatory 

1

intent.
Let me give you an example o{ hoy this type.of terst might Fl

upplied, t tiirrt , to strengthen and-rationalize the law. kt's consid-t

"i'o" 
tiru one hand the Iase of at-large elections, and on the otheri

*" oi annexations. Consider the ca'Ie of at-large elections where 
I

minorities, as in many school districts, were not able to be repre 
i

;;;t"d proportionally-on the s-chool board, s'here it is abnormal'
practice, and where it is very theoretical and in Eome cases a very!
L.rror.'argument that at-large elections are necessary. to protecti
it"l"Gg.ity of the educationil proce.sg in that community. In that
ca*, I tiint ctearly a court. in-considering all the circumstance','
should be allowed to infer there is discriminatory intent'

On the other hand, taking annexation, where a city an-nexes a

r"U"iU"" community that cdnkins a greater proportion of Angloo
tfra" .e.iae in the city prior to ann-exation, there might be an
ilp".da"nd justifiabie .eason for that annexation-protection of
t# tr, il", *t ict is in the interest of all of the citizens of that
iii-n. *t 

"t""er 
their ethnic backglound, and I would add I would

ttti""t it *ould be particularly important to those members of mi
rro.ity groups. I don't think flight to the suburbs should be encour'
;;d. ."a i, Texas we have ltatutes-for example, in Houston,
*'t 

"." 
i- from-that allow aggressive annexation which has been

q,rit" rrr.."ssful in conserving our tax base. That is an important
State policy.- nu"i tti,ugh there might be some dilution of minority voting
strensth. in "that case a"court, if that policy of furthering and
proteiting the tax base is plausible and_ the annexation is necessary

;;e tig"i?;ntly furthet. that goa.l, then in the absence of other
evidenie of intent to discriminaie t think that practice could very
well be held to be lar+{ul and not enough evidence of intent'

fi"rtt-r, " ciear 1egislative history elxpressing the intent of Crcn-

eress foi courts to us"e the above tesi in determining discriminatory
i"i"ri *iit itreamline the voting righLs litigatio-n without causing
iti" ,aaitional problems of having the courts defrne discriminatory

"ff".t 
."a apply some test of disciiminatory effect as such ,---S"il p";;f"'-igf,t advocate that section 2 be amended to bar

"otirrg-piu.iG. 
*iilct have a discriminatory effect,As.I. say,-I

thilk" t'hat, too, would lead to some severe jurilprudential prob
Iems. In addition, it might bc politically impossible.. as.I suspect.

A clear srat€ment of legislative policy that permitted courts to
use evidence of discriminatorl effect to infer intent. however.
*"ua mate ti,e la* in this arel less naive and more effective, and

more effective in remedr.ing the actual devices of drscrimination
.".f, * u1-iarge electio.rs, vrire.e direct proof of subjective intent is

impossible.

' ''/ 6'tl6'
[tr.. Eowrnns. Thank ],ou JeIy- mgct-r, Mr. Kruege. ana^ Ui.

gbttn, for really a very thoughtful, scholarly and hei"pful bstim;
Sihe gentleman from Illinois, Mr. H-vde.

Mr. Hvpn. Thank you, Mr. Chairman.
i want to.s-alute both of-you. I think your testimony has been the

a35it valuable, .at least that I've heard, in terms of making me
6irt "na 

in b-ei-ng helPful-
-we have.all been playing -with the effects test as though this
rGre 60mething. we ought to do and crank it in. It would-hive the
d,ert-not the intent, but the effect of discriminating, and then it
cglrt to b,",f .y?tr-Tg.riqht abuse. But-you have pointJd out ctea.ti,
professor w.{rrtp' that there can be a desperate need for annexatio'n
rhich yogfd have. the anciliary and unfortunate siae Lliect or
li*rimrnatrng agarnst some.min_ority voters, but the need to in-
cr€8se rhe [ax Dase rs crucral. It may be crucial to the whole
oomunity.

so I commend this thought, tg -y- coileagues here in studying
t,* lti:.bill should be amended, tobe ,e.f ca"ef,rl on an efiecG
rrt..I think your suggestion of.legislative tiistory ;, ;;; way of
ryelling .ouj. acceptable el'identiary presentationi that u,ould 

-not

automatrcally. make an effect of discrimination of voting rigliis
ebuse is very important.

I also appreciate your comment on the possibility of im
,".i"t quod.. for eiedted ornci"rs. Trr.i is a distinct possibilitf:Xi \
view it, if section 2 is_amended simply to provide 

"n'"rr".tiii,it*s, /bo!|, of these points I think are awfilly i.po.t"ni 
""4-i-[;;;; ;; /

rill take them into consideration.

?.5
| (DV

[1./e', Y?A 14ausL 
\" W lPr"[c- a.t qtq

oodhd,.
Vapbc "\tXr+



621 Qsl.,\k TeE), r,on'L

)0r,1*', An*tn ( m.quu eF) c*+ qq3

III . Th: Ihcrrrity to Aofnd

Alchough Secrion 5 has been a pb tigation tool ln

ttree, Section 5 only covers changes ln the law affectLng votiug

rilch have been iupleoented after Novenber L, L972. Pre-existing

rlectioo changes and electorel scheoes ouat be challenged by a

coortitsutlonal lawsuit. Beeville, Texas LB a good llluetration

of the necesslty to amend Secllon 2 of the Act to provlde a Dore

rt3orous statulory ProtectloD for minorities. Accordlag to the

1980 Census, Beevllle had a populetion of L4,574 of rtrLch over

55.Etr lras l,lexican Aoerican. The City of Beewllle le goveraed by

I clty council consisting of a l{ayor and four city councll meobers.

Prlor to 1.973, the City Council was ele-cted pursuant to an at-large

el.ection scheme. Utilizing single-shot voting, the Hexican Aner-

lcan corounity was able to aecure BoEe repreaentation oD rhe city

council.
99{

In 1g73, the ciry council "-iopt"a 
a rnodifled redlstrlcting

plan. Pursuan! to this redistricEing plan' Mexicen Amerlcan

puticiPation on the city councii was Il-nited to 2 out of the 5

city councJ.l members' After the Voting Rights Act was paascd' 
1

efforts vere uade !o require the clt, to subult the tedlstrtct\ 
l

plan for Sectlon 5 approval' fhe clty rafueed to autniE' Courc- 
:

quently, !'IALDEF instlEuted a lawgult Eo seek compllance vlth thc ;

Voting Rights Act. Gomez v' Gallowav' No' 76-C-146

(S.D. Tex. ).

The lawsult resulted ln an order requiring the city courlcil

to subElE the election change for section 5 preclearance' Itre

DeDartuenE of Justice, after reviewing comenEs Eubnltted by va-

rious comunity glouPs, lssued a letter of obJectlon'

Thls letter of objeetton Prevenled Ehe clty councll froo io-

plenentinS, the redislricting plan in fuiure eleclions' The clty

council had the oPtion of either changing the district boundarier

to peroit more equicable representation on the clty cor:rrclI or b q3

to the 8t-1ar8e election gchoe, Instead of opting for a }egs

discriminatory election systen, the city cor:ncil voted to lrrPleoeot

the at-Iarte election scheoe over the objection of rhe two ElDor-

ity ciEy cormcil uembers' In the following election all of the

5 cit,v cormcil meobers $ere uP for election' Ihe Anglo incr:obeatl

and an additional Anglo all- filed for offj'ce ' No other Anglos

filei for office. consequently, tbere were only 4 Anglos running

for office for five positions They purposefully left one posi-

tion vacan" so thaE at least one uinority would be elected' Thll

aciion was taken in order to offsct eny clai-a thaE the at-}ar8e

905

rcbae had e discrl-Binetory cffect.

,E-rlrlcs in Beeville can only challenge the at-lerBe elec-

,aL-G by r constitutional atcack or a challenge premieed

,taLon 2. Itre constlrutloaal rtandard siIl be dlfficult to

j6 Clrv of llobile. ou1y by aaeodllg Secrion 2 to lacor- 
i

I rrtult cvldentlary teet 1111 n{ns1!gls5 have r rer.son-

E *T::::-":"::::'::::: 
:::: :::':. :::i:::':::.::'$Vt, clcctlon gcheoes vhoee adoptLon pr:-dates the Novenber 11 ,i

'in f*r.trence deadllne '

."J

P.b



?) QesotkTes\ cr* 'I

bqut,,r Aua.L fnrpr,Der) al ls1
tiag

Epwlnps. But when you see that the Voting Rights Act

..i.'n does have a ve$ piomising.future-at t"P! accordtng to

I#x: f 
"t:",'h!,"r":"','^,,*{?lli!#if",::r*r*

rr,u:[:t f'*A:+t'ilitf i1!"*::: **
#r*i';it'*ii',mlitJ':tt*ffi r,?i!ji:{i*'{,"'#:#
e'f }*"r;*iltt'"*",'i;'"+t*6ri;:'g*:i:li*,il1

ff"'f#,' :- til*l";,;;i ;h; ki" d; ;f i"'tiiu ti o n al discrlni',

At *i*:ffi :!li:k'.-,,-i1':i,rfl$i+^""=#6ir
f:fi i#;*qtflTr"?H;+;i:1t"1"ru";HTJI*'""i,*

Dar,\ Rn4eAdc (t't ' 5W QeP) al tztl

ffi
ffjm#lfl$..'ffffiHl*ffi
ui,ihi,l,frnqfii'ffi #.:ljis#;ii#iriir
ix#[#']il'ifl ]Tipiopo't'"'

P' 'l

&f \qz

J' xt ranat v'Lltat'tt

ffi$1$flfn+i'*:r"n;'^';i"*,rr"'*i*i**
-'1for one, am c.oncerned with the state of mind of Mobile's white

#it',t"j."#;l;Tii:Hri+'"{ip":,"u*ulil,'"1i,':l':l
E::'ffl'.:=1','ff ;l;r'i:,tl#;, 1n";: tni': !:iE":iJ'{
I insurmountabre ,n-th" vast maJorlty'Lt """".. 

Ieaving no legal

nedr to the ,,.t'i*"'l''oi!liIfifii eiclusion except the \;oting

QI,l Act u'here it can be aPPlte,o'

eew.a- Wt*)- (-w t4*l Aid) al ratot
,'- rr KoRBrL can.t {y, f\:":, ?,-lq}:-3l'lhg' .11'."q..lt^"3'iiYlii*a-to be under the Voting Rights Act that when a

lJ; ;;;lit.a, . 
tt 

".,l 
ustice Dep.a1tm.int. 

. 
I.ooked. not onlv 

. 
at

,*ion,-Uut it also looked at *hat it did to th.e minority

!ir;rr:llI",:h.Ty",l.-t:llY-ttl?ll:,:1::'ltl^,'"*T*
ffi#ffi,i:,Tit+ij,:."',i'i:',?T,$t:i*r'i:1'f,1i|?l?*1H

iEmg,ru:3**:i{i.*h.Tsx'r,im;i,rg":,qi?;";r;h;;t6 there are a! m?ny minority representatives after
i.i-s before the plan, that by golly. when minoritie.s get onlylrn a-. before the pla!, that by golly. when mlnorltle_s gel only
ir[n." a! on9 wou]d expect a randomly. drawn plan worrld
a. -ttirit that is a clear voting rights objection' I hope that
ii"-.. t think that was your intent when you passed the lau
5,-ana I think th-e J-ustice Department, the court^s., miscon-
'roiilntent clearly. I hope you look at that and make a good



@ A&grl+a lesL, c-oo'I

*dqd, Ft<,x.S o) tut{
J

No$ the Supreme (rurt h8s Bald that we mu6i sho$ that the form of governmenlwe ha'e was estat'lished in rgil for rhe specific purp*.-oi"r;i;;1", ti""k-.-T;;;office we musr sho* that ir wa-. inrenrronar lr ii-i'Jra".".;;i;#";t;i;;i.v;;donr have to sho, inrenl.r.o darrage unott"i.-p"..;;;;';;;p";rr rn a traffrcacrident. but vou havs 16 shou inren: gher a 
'^hriie 

race of iroirioi.itniro *-r
"n!.S-?n:*qr,",nr 

righr ro t,r"* ,..:"i. ri prt,t" ;ii;;; i.o#u?""Ji," tacr, denied.
a, 

vrn.r snourd, you have to prove inpnr in a t,.rwn uirere rr: lg?6. the Brce;:rennialrear. -vou wll, recall. a group of more than t u-hrl+ Froii(-emen attempteri ur hang ablack man. *'here -iusr riis fasr Tuesdai morn,rs. a *i.,irr po]iL;;n is accused ofraping a black *.omar:..
Whr should vou have to- prove rnreni wf,e.a trre onl.r biacl: poiicemerl whc ranlabove'patrolmen in,ttre uJu,t-'p"liii fi"'pa,-i!renr are lhree 'biaci: 

sa:-geants. allnho uere pui.there b.r.Courr Order" u.hiit'a u.hire counLerpun.-*:t,i used tne wori''nigger".iusr 2r.: mopi\ ago ir. oe:-rii,in6 a t,iaci.;p.:a,ir-..ii"e ,. _r.lor rnJa u'hite polrceman u'ho hai killec rhree [tact r anJ pJ*ir*"r""rtfr"r runs {or Cirrcommrssioner against an incumbenr who ha-. "ii;;-;;;-,;;c.'; go on tn tntpoltt€ oftanment'

r/r\vur^ Ptrrhn+e (u.n VDW) o* [srD
courl. and specifically the Supreme Court decision in the caee of Bolden vs, Cif.v o;r

Mobib fitt U.SC lig0 rl980r has not rervd as m effective mechanism for chal.
lenging pre-19?2 discrimrnatory s)'stems for Hispanics and other language minor.
ities.

Section 2 states "No voting qualification or prerequisitc to voting- or sran-dard
Dractice, or procedure shall be iinpor.d or applied by- an1' Sfate.or_political subdivi.
iioi to den11 or abridge the righi tn an1 cliizen of the United SOto '.p_vote ou

"i.""nt 
oi iL". or colo'i. or in c6ntraten'.ton of the guarantees set forth in *rtion d

ifx2;.' Th. standar<i of proof as delineated in Mobilc by the.Supreme-qYtt +8Y bg

impossible to meet. The'standard enunciated in Mobilc r-equirye proof of drscrimina-
tori putpo"e or intent. Att€mpk to gather eyidence of r*'hat the intent-or purPoee o'f

ii,cis.'*ti" implemented electiin sysftm changes man) years ago would-be an alqroet
impossible t il.. tn Scurry Countj', TexT. with an-.t8.7 Hispanic q.oprrlation and no
Hisoanic reDresen."ation, there has not been a redEtnctmg Blnce 166b. Io Prove rD

198i thar thooe who instituted this change nearly one hundred years ago..d-id so witb
it 

" 
int""t to minimize the Mexican Amlrican vote would be an impoesible burden

Th;;.;oo6ed amendmenr to Section 2 in H.R.3112 is int€nded to protide statu-
to.t .dti"f t funr.,r.s* minorities whoee access to the politicaj Process has been

dilut€d br eiection' scf,emes instituted prior to 1972. Realistic and pragmatic stand'
..& ."si be delineated which wil] give meaning to the Etatutorf' right "s int€nded
Uv ti,. CorrCr.Bt when it passed Sect-ion 2. Facr,ors such aq prior histor-r of discrimi'
nltion. exc'iusion or substantial under-representation of minorities from elec'ted

offrce, 
'.acial bloc voting. discriminatory eiements of the electoral system sucb I

maioritv vot€ requrreme-nts. anti single-,ihot provisions. numbered Post and discrimi-
nat"ron in slating'of candidates are e6me of the factors which would be considered by

ibe courts in de"termining and frnding rriolations under Section 2.
-Another illustration oi why sectio-n 2 must be amended was cited by MALDEF'I

Assosicatr Counsel, Joaqurn-Ar"i.la *'hen he t€stified on June 5' 1981--at 4qtro,
hE.r-Aicoraing ro the i98tt Census. Beeville had a- population of 14,575 of whicb

"".rlC.S ".."""I was Mexrcan American. The City of 
-Beeville 

is governed by a City
Councij consistrng of a Mayor and four citl' councii members. Prior to 19?3. the City
Co""iit was elecied p,r.sdaot to an at-large eiection acheme. Utilizing single-shA

"oti"i, ttr. U"xicaa hmerican community-was able to Eecur€ solne repres€ntation
on the citv council.--'t"-tgls. tt" citr counci.l adopted a modified redrstricting plan. Pursuant to this
.Jir-..l"Lr"i plan,'Mexrcan Amirican participation 9rl the cltJ.counci.l was limited
tp two out bf Rre city counciJ membei.s. Aftcr the Voting Rights.Act-wal passed-

iffon" *n"r" -.d" to iequire the cit,- to submit the r€digt-ric'ting plan for-Section 5

afproval. The city refuxiC to submit Consequentl5. MALDEF instigutqd- a^la*'suit to
J#t .o-pii""ce "with the Votrng Bights Acf. Gonbz v. Gallou'a), No. ?6-C-146 lS'D
Tex, t

The ]ar.r'suit resulrcd rn al order requiring the Citl Council to submit the election
changr for Secrion 5 preciearance. The fupartminr of Justice, after re$ewing

"o-.i"rrt submitted b! various communit.v--group! issued a- letter.of objectior,
fhi. l"ttr of objection prevenr,ed the Crt! 6un6ii.fr-orr implem-enting the redir.

tricting plan in fuiure eledtions The Citl C6-uncij had the option of eithcr changrng
the diitltcr boundaries to permit m.rre equitab)e representaiion on the Citl' Councr,l
or to return ro the at-iarge election echeme Irutead-of opting for a lees drscriminau.
n electton svst€m. the C:itv C,ouncil voted to implemeni the at-large election scheme
over the objection of thi tw<., minoritl' crtl councii members. ln the .folionrng
election all 'of ttre five citu council niembirs were up for election. The Angli'
inc.rmbenl. and an addrtioriai Anelo all filed for office. No other Anglos liled fo:'
office Consequently. there *ere crnly four Angloe runnirg for offrce for five posi'
tions Thel pir.poe,ifuitl' left one pciiion vacani so tha', at least one minoritl woulc
be eiected. Thii action was tak6n in order to offset an-v claim that the at-Iarg€
electron scheme had a dscrimrnaton' effect.

Minoritie-. in Beerille can on)r challenge the at-larg€ election scheme b}' a consti-
tuiionu; atrack or a challenge piemsed u-'pon Sectror,2. The constitutiona.l stanciard
't"itt u" difficult to meet ria<iir crry of'Mobik onll by emendin-g- seciion 2 rc
incorDorat€ an evidentian result t4st *ili mirfrrirres have a reasonable Opportunll.t
o{ eflLctiveiv challengingihe marntcnance of at'lsrge election schemes *'host adop
tion pre-dat€ the Novlm-ber 11. l9?1 prclearance desdirne

P,<

Llold Mc-Srid{- Cus E lze-)volqr) oc{ Iltt
TI{E NEED TO CTTBITY SECTION 2

tte Seelworkers als<, s.upFvJni tht language of H.R. Sll2 which would clarifvbion 3 Plaintifis irr's1j1g righrs lawsuir.s ihoulcj be ali;;ed t i."i;" "iir,"itii;&iminatory intent behind or discriminatory. effects of a uoting f,.".ii."'in o.a",D-ablish a violarion of Section 2
Itr rules of evidence ofter, make it inrpossibie t., prove discriminatorr. intent.E rhen it clear)1' exisr^... The drscnminaton effecrs-oi ; il;;';;"-aur. orrcngnt^ :=f:: :.:*T, pj.Ti r i,"r G 

" ;;;;; ; ;' ;;;,i' ; ffi ;i'nl;ir*l 11 t r,n ugr,ql Da.r nol De sutiiclent t{: pr.ot'e intent in a coun of la$,.
hrthermore. a-< drscrimrnation becomes more complex. intent becomes more difI.i.ah rc prove. But the deniaj or abridgemenr oi ,otint .ighl.'" ;;l;;". -.l".,ou. intbce cases.



Q) Qes.rl{r Tes}, C-a" !l g.t

Ut ,\il NcBvdc (ild\'wJ'uts) ^; lorl<

THI NEEIT T(' CLARlF"t SE(TIO\ :

-'t-:.:.aa??al?:-'. 
\eos Strcngtner'iri; Rrln:: ''- 

ill: i{'rD:'i'lit' "?it|:z

1996

purpose other than racral discrimination Hou much more difficult will it 63 b
Drove thar complrcareo ,;;;;il;;";,h"m". and reapportionment plans *'ere ado6.

5a-i" rta". t" ii-,f.ing" voters'right^s? . L^ ^*^^r. ^r rlicrriminar'
The Voting Rigf,ts n-ct iLJ'ini!na*a-to reach'the effects of discrimination' q*

denia! or abridgment,,"li?g'iigi,;'ihi. denial i. no )ess serious when discrror'

nator) intent cannot be Proven'

I
I
t
i
:

" HsffiffizoL\
- Professor Walsunt. Thank yo", \1t' Chairman-, I appreciate this

f$;jr,H#ri*#illffi iffirTi"iil#f *:il,#if, [
4 fi,l. of the "purpose or intent" issue that we are focusing on'
**"i,i"';f ;;i;;dnd, i would like -to focus the attention of the

Srlriifi; or.iti historical context of this w^hqt9 legal issue'
-Iimost entirely ihroughout the history of this country, the- con-

dfr;fi;i-l-"*-u"rra tn" Llection law litigation were devoid of any
lind of requiremeit- oi pioving purpose-or intent.- If -one. 

goes all
H"*""r'6i.f t" irrtlce Marsiajl's'decisions at the beginning of
ffi, ;;i"t;t; ;h"; the constitution was frrst put into operation,

iffrrl!-n{,iiif,rfl *.ot" foi-a unanimous court in Ftetchei v. Peck

iifsib ltiut yo, should never look into the intention or motivation
t iJitit-r'ii,i"1-tr,u[ ."te of law w1f generally follo.wed thro-u-ghout

ft'A";;;["" tiiig"t-i"r-t.di*" decisions up until the 19?0's' In
frtiir-i.-iioip\o", which was a Mo-nqggm-e* desegregation case'

t fiili;; gtuck #rote that the intent bef,ind rirunicipal .action was

;.iC-i" be considered as an essential el9ry9n! in proving a case.'.i]l*iic" glack also wrote back in the 1940's in Colgroue v. Gteen,

:';;ki-;"-"pp*Ul"*"rf 
-.."", 

that the law is unconstitutional
fi*i!-it-["!-aisciimi".tory risults, whether they are the product

, J-;neslie"rr"" oi 
-u t"ittf"i effort io derpive some citizens of an'frdf;-'";G:' irtii." Elack stated what was assumed to be the

E-it ihut ti-". I know when I was in law school a dozen years

Igr,;i dl tt"ai"a constitutional law, an{- ry-e never heard of an

Edni 
-r"q"i**""t. -it-;;"tit.,"uqll'until the Supreme Court's

*riiiiiii-r.- Orr* decision in 19?6, .an .employment,case, that
iUi" *t'of" idea even 

"iopp"a 
into con$itutiondl lLw and created a

rw thing for us law prof'essor-s to deal with.
fOf io"ir", if *"" in fggO when the intent requirement was frrst
Ut i:L"t"i-i"t" the area of election lau' and votihg rights litigation,
rheri the plurality opinion in Bolden held that you have to prove
trt"nt * i pr"."[uiiite to _c_hallenging election schemes as !ei1S
di;;.i*ingtoii- 

"-,ia"i 
the U.S. Cdnst-itution. It's ^a particularll'

Uorn.fo* t"tr-,tt. U"""..s" in certain other area-s of constitutional

"-tig;ti;; tt ut .." all less important to our scheme of rights' an

- latent requrrement is not imposed.
.,i -F;; i""-G"c"l 

"nder 
the commerce clause if you show that State

.;frw tra-.-tte ;ii",t of burdening interstate commerce unduly, then



B) l2osuUg fcg|

6a-Lbe"r\- ,rnn'l of ?o?D

it violates the commerce clause. There's no requirem-ent sg

irt""l, lrb"., you are talking abogt commerce'. Neither
il;;;-'b" i" h*t-g with votiig rights and racial discrir
;'hi.h 

-"." t[" highest level of right which our C-onsti

designed to protect. . i--i ;hi"k that covers my vierv of the constitutiona] histo.ry 4
."""iii.- t irri"r that th6-same thing can be said^about thl rq
;,sh;;i"si;i"iion i-tse-lf.- If ryu 99 back to th-is Congress otS

"f;a"iriuiaing 
in 1965, I don't think you can find any evideue

;#;lu.raiitt -opinion.. holding that in-tent is required under
2 of ihe Voting Rights Act.- tf," 6ttii spEcifri evidence on that f'm aware of is when
C"n"ruf-Xuiienbach came down to the Senate and he said

;iii-;;.h-unytrtitg with a purpose or effect' That's exa

*'ira.-"raer "sectio"n 2. He ixpiessly said that, and the
;*d ttrui Uitt he t'as testif!'ing on. That u'as, of eour&,
Id-inrst.ation bill. Also, if you look into the acl'--even i1
;;i;* 

"r- 
p-viqi o.n1 il ft _T {? i.!r ^f I 

yl?,il"5:l 
^*""-X*-iff?"ifr'ta"pii"i"d Eomeone of a right to vote were deleted

"o-"T"i"i,t"-rbport,"because 
the Congress wanted to make it

[;;h' .i".t t 6*' po'*'erful the rea-ch of thct law should be'.,'-f;"hililh;t ue-iil thJ upp.orch that Congress togk tp th.e

nal law, it is particularll' odd that we would. now be haun
;;;ei"= i"-B?,id"" 6"i"c .ut back even further than the ofu
a;;lis" ;i iiie criminal iai' Alsolefore the-BoJ*:,1*::i,"*
ili"'t-t"-"""io: ca"" I'm aware of b1' Iou'er Federal courts that L
;;il;i tfr" Votl"g Rights Act aird thel' have al1.said thal a9d
2 was an effect statute. The fifth circuit came to that concluslE
io*t-i. Wh*", and then in the en banc decision,-too' r

ifri.r[ tt" vot€ $'a-s i4 to 1. There was only.one dissent

;;;;;G;, *n"iiirJ intent might be a requirgpent' fhe
;;;;i;;;; of itiu"rrrtn circuit, coisen'ative and liber"l winsp

iJ"ra- t["t an effect tests was the appropriate one under sectio
- i it i"X u'hat we are talking about here is not an amendmed

*u.1, to the act, as we are taiking about restoring it to what it r
J.l*;Ur:- ilt6; tp- ue and w"hat it u'as understood to ba

Congtess.- f ir""ia also like ro mention just u'hat it means to be- openl

*a"i -in"-Eita"" type of theor-v-,,,and,th.e iapT!-9f^H:"f
intent or DurDose t"i[i."*""i. e-' the chairman mentjoned' I
;;;;;;e i;aliidtuG'uod hu"" p/evai)ed. both in the. district t

;d lh; ftf* -"i*"ir". recentlt'. in the casg 9f l'odge v . Bt
;.h;r;-;" 

-iriari""g"a' 
ut-iuig"' eiections as being maintained

poselv with the intention to drscriminate
'"w;'di;-;;;;.il in thar ctse wirh one dissent on the thre'-'r
o*"i. ih"""". is on appeal tr' the Supreme Coun'
'i'g"""r^'tbl*r1,";;d;;i ,I,Ir^t ry rearizc *- I-lst i-^y"L"{tr,"i'!ii. 

-w"'rl'-.iiii-tp".,t gpoi' hours -or ma1'be 
-r,ore .of

iarn'er time in that case. We examinei aii ,a-speclf :t-Bf'I:ili;, ui;,;- tiro 
"ttnrnunit.]' 

and shoued' is the rlfth c#ffi
lon.fuaea tha'' racisrn Dermeai.es everl singie. governmeoi ,-**,
ir]'rr,Ii'"o";; i]',;i:'r;;;;- t63i the rire:'*:beliring anc shochiug

er-rdence. a-s the "o". 
p"rf ii, *lir"i-t"ti't G it'" f,riving raotivrt

iio., Uei,r"a all tlpes of'official conduct.

P- 
to

2031

ro re 8.d, il I 
-c9 

ul{ 3i:, :"I: ffi 11 {:"P, :}:i:' :t -l} :l J;t iil]if;;; 3;i;eme Couit to giv-e the Congress a flavor of the

ft.ii;;;"",we had

'J*r'"..,.Lkd;f ';I::".:*:l:ln*''1'gll,:::i:fl :lil"il::'i#*".t::S?Xi"i;t*E1l:i'^ld.l:.'::::,::ff:,"*::'::::'"*::-:''ll"-'I*'S:lS'S; Jffi ;; ;i ;."d th 
" 

op i ni on *"1 
-q::'ry:q:l' - ^I1cli-f: 3'.' f

i3:ji#itii;#iJ;Y*";Til;il";':tr;,t*t'Y!3ilf,:"j3*i,l,f'li;iri.r;' ;" stiil referred lP-.ofnlr-^ai.,,,n
ifr.';"oto..4" and "whitt"

E 5*'t#!!i{i{:fu :rhri : "l}r}-?";Affi f,TirxiL+ill.fr il.'.=l[i4"fi"f:it,ffi -"*::rx*ll:ffi f **i1il"*"{1",'ii:ig$ji:t:,xi'iLi:*ig{:lttgir*l'iTi"ilr''ir,i*'n our of thai laundromat just a few days before tria]

.L ,. one of the thousands of t,'pes of evidence that-were put

fi ,;;;"itra9,1oi1ariir-ry-1Ti::::il:-",T^":::':,.n,:h*-"1li.T

#i,fi:f ;g:l**"t,,:!l:."'".}'"#?1,?i'xT:l:1,i*.I'1:

"ffi*;: h::? rl;'{ii;I;::!:! !fiii:i:i{ii T:. ei:*l

ffifl4[fffffii$',troffffi
SiliiriT-,r.t nor,' look at-el'e'Fhins on the basis of Bc'lden'

ld you tose I ou. 
-fiui" 

"oi iho*n tt'," Xi,a of intent and purpose

il'"ir"e 't-even though the kind of discrimination ,u'e shou'ed u'as

itiil ,"n Pen'asive in- that case



U) 
(osotlr (es} P. ll

da.tbv(l1 Lsv"| af zog t

ltrar leads us ro. the situation u,here one judge, based on vendmiia:' fa*s, whc is ress hostile t"-Ltacr, rights will, on occasion.rtren the evidence is over*'herming sal.-i,i;E;:;;ilL"nliinrr., i"loother siruation where there i-.-f,'or"' f,oriiliil:'; ;fi;il';ights. airdse can sa.r. and wiil at*.ars srl.-;1;o 
",";';" ;;{';il.i.ninato-

&rff,ll:: ..saii in rhomis C"umi.',,but-there-L-" iJ"intenr to
I think that kind._of llldinc is going to be virtualll. irreversiblecr appeal. It is so discre.tionai.r ,ra io-,,u.r., ;;;;; oi jiag-"n,r,d assessment of .:Ieqibiirr.\ ,ilfr" ":tir"r.!. .#'.I #,rit,", ,o,rill have & vgvl' diffr.curt rime e'er getting those decisions reveried.I thinl+ that thit Ieads to , ,"r1 ula"iiu"t,on r-ii".riii'in'rajr""n,ounties where the etecora s."si.rt,-*ll 

-il 
d;;il;i. voi, mi*irrrin a case in one because 

"i til" p."*"ir.-i"i1.j'.iiislhr, [".thar couni.r. in hrs domain. ,;d ;h;;'lose rn the ad-iacent counr\where the facrs are .exac..i1 
..h; ;;;_';;d;;',ilji;'il,i,*i".uni.Thrs agarn rs predrcarec o.- irr."?*umDrlon tha; 1,ou even hat,e

11Li:.: \r.hcr. ca.r, spend : to ;.iii,, ;;;r. pltilng a case rogernerrhrcrr 1: obi'jouslv no1.a pra*,"", ,"ur1... 
.B;ti;;;.il; 

rnu"n rir.ext rem e sicu.ri o\ -n oi ei ecfr r,i., 
-iii* 

i, 
"?,'i 

;.o-, giiou, ;# li.,; i i,
-:: i g'oulci srrcngj\. ,.g. rh.'roo"-i r"* !(, resrore this rau r<T'ila: rls origrnal functior. rnreni, ani-rurr,r.e E,as. anri rc o\.err-uiran c ei irnrn ar.e -rhe ."q,rrr"m"n i i nri in"-,,rrrl; l; ;l';il,; i.' ir.i".,.

lzogz ;

ilg into the law There. .r" ,.;;' two .phases to- an election. caae .

You've got to prove that election practlces and laws discrimrnat .

But that is nor enough. After.you- prov.e that, you now -.us! aE ,

show that it Ls done intentionalil' with the purpose to discriminatd
I would like to urge this committee to iembve that bifurcatioi -

Lnd. q?y that if you show that it discriminates, that is enough, eiri '
that the intent and the purpose behind the law is not an essentiai
prerequisite to victory.

[Complete statement follows.] 
:

TbsnuoNy or Deuo F. Wri.rsnr, Assrsrexr Pnorrsson or Lrw, Erronr Uxnp-
Brr!' AND CouNsnl ro rHE Frnu or A_nnrxcrox, Rusrx, WrxrEn. Knrrcrru 1Gooen

_-.qg.d morning..Mrsrer_c.hairman and members of the Subcommittee. 1 6m David
Walbert from Atianta. Georgia. I am an pssistanr professor of law at Emorv UnI
verisity. vhere I primarill- tdach cnnstitutional and iiecii* ta*.-i h"* ftd -"t
praetiied. law ir -Georgia lor the past eight years, and since ioinin! ttre Un;versirv. t
h-ave.marnlai:red ml practice with the Atlants firm of Arrington, Rubin. Wini#
Krischer & Goger. I Eave specialized over the years in votinf rfiirts ana eld;il
litigation

I would like to thank the commrttee for inviring me to teatify before you todr-
an<i I hope m]'comments can be of some value to you. I have be6n asked-to addilrl
the "purpose.or intent" issue that has cropped irp in constitutional and electiE
litfuetion in the past fen years. At the outset, let me sa1. that I am firmly oopmd
to the.ne*'13; created- intent requirement that ha-. been inject€d into the kiw ior iE
frrst time in our Nation's history I am opposed to this development ,rot onli
because it contradicts our historical legal traaltions. but also becau-se of the prafr
cal consequelces of-the ne*'doctrine. I firml.v beleve thst the Congess ihould
amend g2 of.the Voting Rights Act to eliminare the intent requiiement froi
litigation involving racial disciimination in the electoral proceBs.

81 wa.1'of ba.ckground.. l should first point.out that the reqqirement of purpc
rnd intent traditionally has had no place whatsoever in oui legal svsteni. sine
l?90. the S.upreme C.ourt has."purt*iti refusJ t"-"onsid"i ti,"-i'nLni ""b.otithat iay behi-nd the a-d-option or retenrron of a particular or legislative scheme. The
constitutionahtl' of offrcial action ha-c aiu'ays hinged on the impact. not its motivat-
14s nurposes That wa-" the rule set down in thelan<imark opinron of chief Justice
Marshal] iD the 1El0 decision. Fletcivr,;. PecL.6 Cranch 8i. lB0 ttatOt. fUi
pcitron s'as reiterated b1' our supreme c-ouri on man]' occasions in the nearly t*o
ggqtul?96 tlrgl followed, and was inoer recentl_v restarei n Polmcr v. Thompsoiz.40B
u.s 2i? ir.971,

. In the voiin6t area in panicrrlar. there had never been an1. dispute that the
discriminatory effecr rra-c enougb- in iL. or*-n right to raise a condtrtuti,onal question.
Justice Biacl: s.ar,ed whar he feh.'a-. a seir-u.io"n:-;.*t,r;il;;.J--^f" i" rro
opinion in the 1946 decision in hlgroue v Grcen.326 tl.s. iAg,572 tl.g46r. ln Justice
Blach's.words. the Supreme C,oun ha-. a "Duty ta invalidatr [a.] state lan,'where
discrimination result.c-frorn.either ''neglligence or e rx-illfui efioi to deprive some
citizens of an effective vo!e." Even the most conserva[ive mnq of the supieme c-oun
tha: disserrtec in the hisrorit Bahe, t. c,ar.369 u.s l8t: 1962r reappo.tio.r.unr
case.agreed that the- constitutionality of a Etatute s'a-q .,ested b1. its 6dnsequences,
lor p]_ the int€nt- thar ma' have mori'ed iher acioption oi ii,. it rut".'Justrce
Frankfurcer st^aled thal ir ':u sett]ed that what€ver"iconscitutionajl 

"o"""qu"r"oma1'derive fron, a disc:'iminarion worked bv a stau-sr.atu* must be-the sarire as if
the sarne discrrrnrnatron were x-riiren rnm tle StarB s fur,<iamenra, Ianl'; iC at BZ:-
2{i. Thus. r'here a statue "q'orks' some form o; cirsc:.rr:",rnaiio:-,-:..e.. *-here it had
the efiec: oI d:.scrlrrrinating rr. aciua l:npiemeni,a:iol-lrs consti:.utionali$ s'a6
',es',eo ui :he$ 3or^s€ouences anc nor br somr unce:"lvinE motivarion-c thai ma1.
have beer exp:'esseri oi. tne face of thr sia:urt o: ollrn'rs€. .4 'aui-pcrse oi "f*lti-vpe ol starciarc n'e-. reilerat€c subsequenti-r ol the Sup.eme 

'C<run 
and iou'er

feciera. couns anri br the Sup:-erne C,ourr a: lea-.:-a. )'eaenti\ ar l9?j-. ir: tne :ase oI
ll'hite t .Regeste, 4iZ tj.S. ?5? r19?3, lr tha: case. ine Sup:"emif<l,.r.-"n"i,i*or.iy
strucl <ior*r cerrair. countl-*'icie eiecr.lons tha': haC rne efleci oi drscrirninari:rg
a.€:ainsi bla:r. ari r::sr.nics ir tne Sur+ oj Texas. fn" ai.r.ii: c"i olit,.-Srp.".i
Coun fcunc :ncs,€ €recrrons u, D+ unconstrrulio:ra. noirr.itns,anding the ccmpiete
absence oi an1 e'icience *nar.s,,r€\,e:- o; arr rnrenl u, cirsc:-iminart- rn eighei thc
adoption or ma:n'.erance of the countr-wrde electron rcbeme



2033

ffi$i{pi,1i?*'-,i;grf il;:k':';i'3',;;T,.iji#;;hqirt"i.i$Iii;

rling ia\
The overal, rner,€ a'no coni€x: o: 1-t.lfj;r.-)3:*:.P;'i?|;f-J#i,t["X;ulSirtll#;ix's;.1";:'-'."*"",'";:;;'':;,ih-"'*:,*tl":i"lrr.'xl*l**:i'xcfi*t t.t musi .halt .lreer 

cor,l€r,plai€c n\ *"'f 
i_Ioiu.i,.]", *h"rr""", lheu efiect

il;i#i;";; r<,{ineAcr 42u's'c li11'^'^.e:'":l:ii ;r*...Secrionrzand;:aretntthar.Section:,oi!h.eAcl.izu.D.t !i!rru! v:-vr^'-'-Jf 
O"-"i,Secrionr.2and;l:aretnt

i-a,"?ilr.i..",".. !'et tt,. ge::erar *t:if:-:l:]T, -,....,,,.,* -.c, vorinE, or 6la:rcn <irscnrr,:na:o-i l::,.1.rit.lj;ira'irlffr""i,orl o, prercousri.e '"c vorinE. or 614:Ic
game Tlre-r rEir, reacr -ar-- TLa .qF-rre. rs tdenii;: in 6o'.:', secrions. and tne:e !rame Tr,el rEir, reacr allt volrnr sec,'vsrrv'' -r"!: 

in bo',h sections. an. tne:e rs

"rc.-pr".ii.. 
<r; p:c':eduri The lanSuage L' tdeni

z03l

no rational reason to believe that congress intended their subsrantive cote'a8t

be different
tl llif; l?ii g I e? 3 aru ) tan. 

; 'i! ."1-d:l'i:f-,., T -"iH 
n ff .*I;,f; *Y"",*:

""?l#Il?'"itr, t"fr-.1n*t-or a"r-"ing or abridging the right L voLe on account

l-.^. " t. thp criminal o.ot iiio-n-o? ii,'. tSffi Aa-' tlie Coq&1elo C'ommittee expnli".d " tn the criminal Provisron
i,?':;; ",[j':f;'?jlii.:ilJf;'"#i 

:':d'""r; fi i +i 
Y ;r-ri;ii i and kn ou ingi

.r.-^..r..r^-+r" " ti*l.rinn"i ir"""i-i"-a -b..en -included in the Senatr bill 4ti"i"l"tii"i,V--i"q"i.l-"r,t 
-ihtt 

" defendant act "willfullr and kno\A'rngl'"

f ra ud ulently," I imitati oqs" ih';ft lg -tF;^lP lq!- I :n:-}i?n *t t-:1 II
il'i&'#,Xfili:s"T'c;""T:R"p'.'ir!"6g--zrr,'esit,^_clne lst se's rre65). repr

If .' il 3 I ti; 6; g 
- 
I;' A ffi i; \;r itili'':l ?i: L.T',f"1 1: li* Illt'*ItL!' i;Hi!'i H'J'Srilri',i, ;'i,;i; .i "'i .'r", "'"'" l! lF' i:l f Il-'"111

llfri''HTil:'#'"""#'*3o ;#ffi;r;;;iir:"-s *' No 8e-i62 8eth cong''

iiil!i,' ;n#H ; [.S 
-c"f; Ail:-d ]93.':, . 

"*;1] T:l *' ffl ".a..""*a,^ffi;Ji'ii'iiT"".i:i;i';-";;iHi,.r;;';il",-ot:.::"l1*f-.*:d3:::*3
",,ST",fl 

#'i #;i' "# llEp' " 
* 1r 

il "r, 
o^ * " rllil l[: ?:i : I *iJ'""-T

ii"ft'.,J1'1ir;'d;':'oti'"""*6;t,"f ti*e."t'r"!l'd':{.!}::f*il'1,:llff ;,"..'*,
Iilli""'i'Ll!";'lqd;J'';i"ii'tli;ir-;'Ji,i=onl'j::,:*"1*,',t'B'':"*,';}i,|f,fiT &li, Ji"f l,.#';*;'-; fi ; ;,.i,=ii o"" A1 sestions shourd be read rn

materia. ^^,,s- ,,,Li"*i;;;; w Lhe Mobitc decision in the Sripre*" F^I1 .tlY^."::*..:l':l

B: Oess\+, Tes+

vCell.-I I g5*t+ bI ?'D33

voling La\

ffi

,.Hq:#ijr&,,li:::r,i:#.n';-3'ffi ,:i#tf i#:t#;i:ir'l;"jt;:

ffi;t*,n+$#,*n*-##h# *[t*

#
"{li:*"1;'3;t'i,#i,;rl[,;t,,,?*i:l'tft :l#'f ,i!:til"!!:;+!jflr'3"$r"ifl:
tbrt intent mighr be ?"P-I"ITY"1:',Y"'r.i.i)Ii'"i,t,.,1a it""" produced the opoosttz

H:*slu#*i;*effi*."$*tuil.:+;Hf ffi
The kel \^'rtness *1";':;i;; 'i1"i1'11q11"T;;;;i"6'";eral'ha'"zer'bach 

atsr

oade it . 
crear 

. :1"-: [i .'ouic reac], di...,*ffi 
rrJ".,t!- .'si'il:T":i,!:-1i

ffi 'tti.r'.':xt,ilflui*#,lhlTfi l,"ffi ,J;.ti'xill:::::"::.u::,:^'^,
W:!'^l:"::X,'3in!;',#S,iJ-tdi^.t"-?.1i"::*l:"f" jli'u.*ifl T,JIl['J3i
tf :*'.:,':,*:;'I';t.f 

*;#:.tp!ri,fi-"-#";t;;3it'"'is1r-:t*#ts:
rtuch have n"t"' *"i'-"o"tiu"e ro requirt an intent element ror-e

vII rmuires thal arl-"mpig.ver.'mtentro;rali:i"""e}! " "" "-131111" 
en'pjorner':

practicl.4St'SCszoli('i:'g'bul"ha:pto"o''Jn'i[5(€r"consi:ued-r(i]tare:re''
tes',81"orp".,.un'"ii^';;;;o;t-'or-tii"i"ii'iilli'"'1::'"'ru'mortoia;
cfle.e' s'"andarc Dant:u:a:tr- in irgn: o: tnt 

-' 
ir:posec o: apoiieC pnras4 rr] tn€

illl;yi,;,;i;ffi ,tg,tJJ}fi},Ttf4fl 1dt#flJtfr :dff 
',,ru:

fr;f .zdioi.ZB?-98 (5th Cir. 19?8rtJ Wisdom.-col..lT:q -^, ^. r, n{ r}ro \,^"',if;f ,i,""";i!,l,"Ti'Ii'i"i"i,'i,:i ,i"'"'-*pp*"a to be-a pqn or.$ 2 or the Yoti

niiiiffe'ii'i;rs"il;'goil",1t[ to .o*." ihat prot'rsion of rhe la'^ to its origir

;r":iffi;'Th;;"i".i-prr-;;';i;; in ou' l'ga) svircm fot ar' int€ni requi:'ement

ll*ti.. litieation. Tte mos"t'-ii"'i"tt ""a"fundamental 
t"cht,T-l-11"i^]Il!ffiii3x ,,',ffi# Tiii'-;;!",'#;;;-,i;i'funda-enrar righr we have is the

to vot€. It holds ou, "ntr.I"tfiti.'oi!o""..r-"nt,together' 
and maYbe m-ore t

[,;; i' ;'#aii th" t;,r' I"s,li*"!-L.lP:-.*Ii:l 
"*:-F:'i.:TIl:11' f".'::

ffi,il|?; ii.'Ii"l|r;; H; ii,'il? ir,,i'*;t''ii ".e 
f un dam e n tal I 1- . 

un f ai r. and

'il'i"i"i'ii"'i#iJ i""'tiiii6iii 6T'';;;,-ih; cql"IlP"nld,=^::'.I1:' .ll':*H"l#'ifHi;;"-il.d;'?; ;;;;;;i; i1'."i1pio s'hether these discriminatr

i,i.i'i.i f, 
","' 

i* n 
"a 

o r*q ;' 1" q { ::i -*.:.', 5'li 
'.T,T,L?"a,1;}'#5llfJri'"? ,11i= f".'i#i6iuj.i'oi',"eire"n... poiiti6a) eeii-prote*ion isnorancs

;i;;;;;.;i6"it"r"on tlere migtrt be is simpll iTet:)'-P:!j .^ Li-.^-ia-r .i._i,..,.r* 
BT 

-;:;' 
ffi: i:"#"r; 

""il 
;;;; il ;. ;!-Jt soi e c laia, tr, h-isior i cal sirn ifr131|

* 'r'i: ;;J-fi-tri"t-'l,ri ili;;;;;i rill alfirmatrveil seek t. mainurn a tr{'
democricv on behalf of "fi".iiir.il-'t" 

ti"" * tht oroforsr that *'e will make tt-
EII:ll"',i';i,i'";n..t'* r..i,1l*J"-o;.'] ;g^:"*'*1.*-':-::'*-)ous excrusron I

Y,t2

Evvtrrr,rsrrr eF'r w -^' 'G'.';; roto itt"it wa, in b]'t'bemselves
[eople who may be Power



p) ()csul[s Tesf

\Na),hrl-r 6"* \[ o* tus*

rlti:::$#nhffi rffi,,[ffiffii**+,-*:r"=#i
a,'.,#,,lts;flf;,,',f}**I*:iJ,[Li;mt-"t':",]tffi",'Lilfi r
function

lnadditiontothesehistorica]considerationsconcemln{:tirelntenistandar4fl
wout d atso rixJri ^'r"fi .i'-*i.l 

-,r," c.*'iiiJ;#;;;r' "*p" 
-"n"t in I iirgafi ;

since the prrp.##'il;;i'sl;e"J n+'*r, cieit'ed or tt'r- iupJE-i,fffi'9ti j
misht recall tii i ii*.ip"l-i".*n .ro:' the passage -o{ tht br'

t{'-#ffF$i,:1ffffi**:u*tilif ilfr'}e,i*ffiqp'F'
Elli",j^". d..t;:'$;';;C"ft 

-;d*d in Sour} Caloiittc v - ltat

301. g14 '1966t: "Voting suits are unt"'ii-t *"rou'( rc Prepa!'e some"imes requiriE

ul,il-ia.i+;tfi *[*t':fi i:nil*Btb1 compa:'rson 'rake. Jor exarnl:, :,::?::::i:"; il.;;;;; ,rr*a ," ti^,r Sou_:i rid
hanpens u c" tt'"- nl *t- sign ifi ;r I disc ri niir'a:c''r'oerr'e n cv- 

":se(
abiidgesblachvotrngrightrani""l,.c*-ii"*tirorr'':ntpoii:rceDrJ3es(Or'c'et
a greai rrhi)e an aircrirel car finc'":;;il;E:s"l'o-!11To'ii*$:;,1m
Er$..llt. i;' ;;t -*""i io' examoit at-iarre elrttons *f,'t:j... ani r: * ctarg.

nn:.ilr'.ru;,x*.U'H'.";xi$:';H*'{':*'ii#'rTT'i'L"1;;'a1'
the rrecedrng-vicrory E'g" Pa4e ' ti#"]li*r'ry';*t::::"cr: 19?6 rCirl!
Albar:r si^-itchC tc at-ia:-ge electtorl' ^mm'eriratair 

aftrr the s'h:tt s:i.iar hai nclt'

strucir dowr

P .13

lt:g,T?$l:,*::,ii'n{["4!:,""rr.{:Jxffi ::*"H:i#{;#:il

hlp'{t,Iff;ei"ft'trjflFdh}li*iilil;,t'"fiilit?-:H
'Js;i"lt'iffi".:i*f':iiJi":l:*":ff "::l,ii*itmil"#:l::lffifr:ltli*"r$1k;[i:a6iqii,:ffi,""+Ht]*r#:i{:
xit**?+*i+ff!'t#,itrii

ffi E*"S,qt*tt*:'"ti,-,;::*i:+H#rHi"iirffi
$,**rl$*ttruax-t:'**q*Tuiiu,;,;*r:ii,*rx

'ffiffin*ttr*t*#s*+i

2035

i,T; i:Hl'.i'-#;.-ii.i"tr'iir--"here the fundamental right to loie

rg-nE***s**:,$u#u+ru*ffi
$i;1#kii;IrpTsil*r"s:i;ilf=,,"*'..ffi,Iff'.rl.,u:p,u,r=i"'iii"ipi:p_'il:,T:.."1:,:Tlrt,,;,T?:i.'*',1.:"#;L!"ri;'q*dd!
;5rY il'."i ",;;?1T."J,H ;;"- ;; ;;; pa?ea rc "' 

oi["' l"a i"' e diff e ri n :

ianr and analvsrc o, ,n" 
"*'ia"itJSoih 

i""o*nt j:?Jh?'gl,*"*"::Sli:
tfr tx.:"Htii"Iit'.1i !i,i-atiii, "",rJ x afnrpea br a iourt of appears

of the discretion E0Yen t'"'i"itl"'t""'iuag"-' fi1't kind of resul"' rrhrci

rble if the inrcnt .onoI.i-i''!ii"!=a,'*;!3"i:-ll*,]n;-E,i"."'ll)

iffit[f l,'iTuh:$lfid5x#im*;'*:*;r*r*"u,.g

ffi*lgffqq-'ffiqrft tr*fiff+ffi
I tbre ," no orher *;il;i';;;;tantialil rrt,riii"i t* 1n*t".* rdenrifre6 *'ith

I deoral mechanrsm.tri't' ;illd -fii*-<it 
ars..;mi,irtton The greater the degree

J briminatron. the n"i"i"r iii.-Luia"t,-tf,. a"'i""ii".. oouid b* pul to Fu:

ople. s'here at-large "'r*,'ifn.'.t."iii]'.na 
tn. "nt"t 

is subsrantia) discrimina'

b rDd ihe general ,.,o'fii'Iih?ti;;; ; eiecl an1 iegrstators of their choice

, F. reapportronmenl rJfilri"-irdrta * required because the governmenl czr':

!*T##',T;"i*llil::i?m#U**s';,'::;;*ffi'':lx''rii:llff x;

I r Fnicular .oun,y_.ni'ii^iri "J-.iiigii'tr" 
."ulr' rnsig.,ii':ant discrir.inaior'

Gq- the burden on at* ,ua'*.iGii1.it-I us* wouic b* ies= S:il-. ihorign tDe s"'ai&

rtd br required * ,aoj,lrf,"i 'm"iris 
"f achter-rng irs goals il othe-' je6f cis'(:'in:

G-;;il-,routa ,u#uniialiy funirer the goak rcier.:iitc b\ t:r€ s'rLt

E;;T;; ;;i; f"r- tfi;--u,ittarion to piesen: resiimoD\ l{, tnr G)mrrrilre€



ta) (LguV T"tt

J, * nS \ a.c*-g\^o"/ c* >o'v

aptrrts.

2036

Mr. Bucxssrn. Thank you, Mr' Chairman l am Jim Blacksher'

L_ , T""i=r-in pii"ate practice in Mobile. I have rerresented

i,iI.i ,i"lriiff. i11-'chaiLiges to at-)arge election schemes !a

MLuit", Ala.. and Pensacola. FIa'"'i";'il;i;-y* rot 
'fiit -Gp";unitl- to testifv in support of the

noaino tiif i propo."d'"*!'ni1n"rt o'f section ?bf tfre Voting Righh

Act.'-io, 
black voters in the South, it is critbal that t"' tTXfA

*iiJi fiil"-tt. Lff".i.i""-aituiion bf theit votin^g strength ex

election schemes ";Li;dii' ;aoptea before 1965 You heard Dn'
\i';;e;;rd 

-.na- 
ko".1"r #ttifv here todal' that 

" 
at J arge. electiong

i,ri= b"", an important weapon in the arsenal o' white supremacy

;;; fr;;;ir*iior. uo=t-oi the at-large plans for southern siti.q

;fl $,{:",ilr','::"s*i;*t.rgi'.nU,-r'#f{ti?"TIffi
;;r"1i.?;;.r,L"a'oi 6dft-!h"- Iare I940s follc,r*ing the supreme

C".itt"iir]i"l--.i.i".t-tt"-'uti-*t ite primaries or during the latp

S';dJ, 
"*h;;'ih" tsi.""t l"'"i 

"a*inistration 
introd uced the first of

ihe modern voting rights bills'
Of course, ,o"" of?ii"t" pi"'tsO; schemes has been susceptible to

.f,Iff "re"-"ra". 
t"ction E 

-*t'ltt' 
sen'es gnly. to preserve the sratus

;ffi .' Th?i, ]'ti*k; l; $;'p."i;ir.n that Proiessor Kousser referred

#; iffiti,t "i'niiiG-Ait'. 
own grandfather clause. Thus far. the

l't;ril b;;;;"i f;*roi-ei"icir"E his aurhority under sections 2'

B. and 12 of the u.tJ;'fti;ia*isuits against the- many pre-1965 at-

i#;i*;i"f".tlo".,-;*"ptl, fewer-than a dozen ceLses over the

ent'ire 1}1'ear hlstorl' of the act'
The race'pr*r ".i "i-iqtg" 

pt"ns, in p^anicular' try--lylI:l-:"I
n.".iio"ri-.?io" If the fiaeiat courts follo*' the presumPtron ,o

'i;i,"'iifuiii'i;';."3;idrn, 
-ttui 

such election -plam could noi be

;;:irii, irilii=,"a, u."rui" tr,"y were adopted when biacks couid

;;i1;;;;;';;G *"i"-not ari immediat6 politica) threat biacl

;;;;t ;")' 
- 

Le trappe-d 
- -' - - 

t;;sit 
-historical' 

Cat.h-?'z 
-Their 

voter

wil] continue to #;;;;t;A: b): an election- s]'st€m- in q'hoee

"i"rtii.-Ir,"r- 
r,"a".o *l;;. ;hil" ihe Suptem".FYtt-=-demernd for

ir"#i Ji'fi"fq,"* inL"i pi""ents them from attacking it in court.

Af -lerqp efectron'sch"ir". "." 
today the principa) barrier to

s,i;;#fii;:,k-J;;d;i.'itv r"; gfai iorlticai q?'1.'"-il1t':n in the

5;;;i;. ilhint i.* echoing a srmllar sentiment'that u'a-s exp:'essed

;;;;;;i;?-b-'-I\d'. 
-M;#d" i '"u'"ii 

for inclusion mv prepared

statement today, a race-baiting pamphlet that rra" circulat€d in

Pensacoia, Fla., a*ferl-i;#';;?'i;tilg t"t". 26' 1981' cit;- runoff
elections, along witi'i*?;L.""iarticles fr6m the Pensacola Jour'

iliE;;ibilal h;;' ;hi! 
" ;;i'hlet contribuied to the uniform

;;i;-;i-f;"i'Uf ".f,' 
.""aiaifi In the'at-larse election in that citv'

In mv opinion, iir;;;;ed section 2ln-the Rrdlpo bill wouid

."lif #',""f,irc["So"tf,u rn ers t he oppo.t rrrriti es tr, chal] en ge rac ralll-

A;;;i;ilr;;;i "i*;i'"' ;;i;;;; 
*ihich *"" cievei oprng before cri'v

ii ttlr\* t Bolden. and I urge its passage
", u"Iaii.lorl'iloin thcse prer.ior. olitr".ses whr, nave pie.aied

"1il ;[i; 
.guU"o*rn;it""- 

to Lsublish in tht iegis]atire hrstoa a

;1;;; ;;;;;i ;"a;; *.h.t c,rcomsrances a rrrdliimemcer tirstrici

eiecrion pi.r *ooidl"""liio 
"ffective 

uniaviul vore dilutior The

absence of a cteai.luaicr"riy manageabie ciefinition of dilutror. has

P. tq

zbet

;"r frustrated,.the. developm-ent of a rule protecting racial.iue pq?,Ii.l 9:*:lil:,ion b1',a disrricting'p-ian ;,fi.[ per.
sstisfies the one.person-one riote guarantei df *"i"rity'i"iu
wlds v. Sirns, the A-lqb-ama reafportionment caie in tgOl

a.fter all, ,r,"T" in which white vbhrs i, nii.oinjf,;;
percuaded the Su.preme Court that the iatti "i.,".a_"iid their votrng rrghts, as well as blacks, but Ciry of M;bii

leaves us in the anomalous situaiion 
-w-ne'r""'""riiif,

needs only to demonstrate effective devalrrafi^; ^iI;:ty neegp only, Do. oemonstrate ellective devaluation of its
strengfh-.to obtain judicial 

-relief, while a racial -ino"i*additionall.v plo_vg an invidious Iegislative ;;rp";;;^';;;;the 14th and 15th amendmenrs,r"ie ilG"dt;Ii,";.i1y"to
Ulq-.kq However, an1' statement of the meaning of 

"if".,ii*dilution should avoid formulas that catt toi-i"op";l*;
:ntation or .racial qyqr"s or.that a;p";; ;;'fiIfr;;i'",,,;
factors which cannot be apptied fair\. and-;"iliil;li.r.1;

the same time it ouglt to measure as nearl;,. s-s possible the
*":la":.rl jlyf_9gvduation.rhatoccurs'",r*,il"n.irtl"l

I are not appo*i.one.d _eq.uqlly by populatir" i;;;;;;;h;
rg as or].e possible definition of at-rarge aiiriiJ", '".r,i.n'i
meets all these criterra:

!{aoritl :gt giirtion occur6, in an- at_large voting situation.
- "l.Tti9n ?9!:-j for a State o, tocai -irtti;;;;*;ffi;;iFr..nit" a. bloc-voting rr.rajority oue. " ;;b"G;iiJ"ffi;;;i
sncicf onf lrr in rlafa-+ *l-^-:+-l ^-- Jr -rco;r1is. J3nJlr to 

. 
defeat minbrity candi d," tes r"a- 

"""ai!"'t# -IlT-t! , politicatly cot esi"e, geographicaltl'l;;i;;';".iif ?,minority,group.



Plr
Et f{ns ol*s Tesf

Jr*"r [5\c.r.hs'\*-- "h 2Di-1

. IDts suggesi'ed deJinition-of dilution mea-cures the same kind of

'. iror dcvaluut'o'i ti"i'*o'id o"tt" ii iir it'" *1'?I11l':rers residec

ffi*#*i,l**,*t**+r*-W{:;,*in:i
H*hlt*tre*ti*rs+t+,',+
t"n derrnition does not q3il. for .proportional relr91lt11t:l^,11

3' into "..Jun,-if,. 
possibilitt' thai et'en u-here r'here ts i'acrar

Ir-voting. ti,e 
--inotitl 

gtoup.. ;;1 be able to pla'' coalition

folitics "n0..#r.^ 
r"","'r=f ti"lr' frtor?a J* J,art"t eiecle.. ei * el :

I the porr.tori,ly ir.l"'i"iit.)"i *.hit* or biack Eiroups da not arways

E 8s ' uroi'or'i;;;;';;;diaut"i of their do'o. race It does not

frcnd on u'h*d-;;;* 9i1i't ninber or biack*' or Mexican

.lEcricans ,.,ulii\. "i".I"a. 
It allows for the occasionaj. purel]

'ffidil;f". * -"i rrt.".itil 
"^n 

d i drr"= b1' u'ni : e bioc-vct ins

la m-v opi"'*r,. ii'^""1;';;ll ^"he 
or,,estions aDc'':: m a::a'e'ea 5ii i:r

$rl are,", orr1. io'icit;;;i., ot.t,.,'=tice Ster a:: s p''i:aiii) c!':nriri-

bDr:,ldr-n and more- 
f roulC be pleased to dl-scuss this

llrre de'.ail
?hant vcu,

cief.rrltit;r' oi ciilu:ior; lr IriJCi'

\ 1l{4,}h-.\FJt "7el.-'-ilw^

,"eL M "o1r, 
zo:,l Gtt- (t*5,e*1 stuk,,^a}

tr}:ffii-ffi bc*a6, L r^q",*^ 6urnioar a-+ \q z\t6+)

_/.

ffiffi
HIT-H+#:lHhasesrouP



p) Qesol Llg Tesl

\cfets {ro'll:s a..Y ffi ao4b

this WednesdaY' disagPe'

i:#::n:*":'J:i,'nlr;'"S',*?fiffi":dqfli:.*"i;,::;Y:t$*hr'.iti,*,s;
i:flffi ,l;:nr;.:Hitrmffi rFt$":,;*':lt":*iininii'i'%";"il6'
which I happen . *,'"IIti""'f*i"i ti["n. advertised" rather than-risk

Itf."[,']d'ff}'-,i']?##"f lr"m."r*t;r*if 'ffi :Hr#fi ;;""','*i"ffi
tiioii,-ttrii, eelective ;'U;;";i";T{inttitl*t purposes "would enta 

:.ffifi;',";;;iilti,f fXl56L1t"'J""h.th' :I" section 2 ransua,e contained I
its oiedecessor, H.R. 347i'it1iTtJt"iilt"i i",,gu'o" now in t'he law' as interpretd

in Mobile. and add , p.d#tir" '1;lT;L-;-t€qt tiaclit'g the langu.age:row^contai'Dd

in section b. Since i, " ifi"uii".ii""O"g that submissions to the J-ustice Depu$

lr:ffi r, x j sii#:g "ffirl'iir ":.ft 
p "m;; ffi l;,1:flilE#"Hs'

H;:[#i?sl{ft 116#"8-'f:*Xn:[ffi*+*'*ri*;;:ii"iH:iIi

P- ttg

2046

"H:Ht iLitili,ltlaii. i,r" u*. maligned somewhat and thst the "rntent"

ir uees is broader tf,rr, ,oti,i'ffi61i"liifi $it j*ti"o of the Supreme Court up

Uffi ;;i-i;..E**l.iii.,*'F"Hi[{lllf m'#i"'J"?l:frf Tffi:HIi
a:*"r;1q;il;1{ar;$ffi fi#.:r#{*fiiiisk#T,'ffiembrace. Crcntrary to th
White's conclusion that

..Tosustainsuchclaims,(thatmultimember.distric,tsarebeingusedinvidiou
r' 'i,i i'',"itii,"fi;iif ;'':'i;i"r';1;f .:tt?e*l::.u*'1-li'f}*,ff"?ifis: m:fls not enougn Lfrat LrlE raer4r 6'ver tial. The plaintiffs burden iii.iilti-r" tEtts in proportion to its voting Po(!
o"toduce evidence a ..rpport"nn{nfr tt ti tTrd political Droce6ses leadhg to nmi
iion and erection *"," "ii "qiitlZiry; p^*4i:t**: *:,t}""93,"'r* fi5[
fx*J$:*1T'**Iil'ff ;iffi*;lltiJll"ffi;x'i1"'1:"':J#"*
sis mine).

It is on the undzrscorcd language that the Justices' and I suspect your

I"&iffi"';i,"#F,3:["T:,K#*iisi:i,'lf, itlLfliiiH:fi#
'nJE"i,i-1"''#"ffi1r,d#":i,iif fr'hgt.'Il?i'i#Iil,';ti,Hf ffitil:,T"#.:1'ffi1i'#t"i#r"'i'"""r++dlgryi:l::::*",:h";,11iil
hB"i;,ii'?Ti"5&;1;i"#.il{*,l,."tif-'::*n:f.Yl:?'1'"mif; ;fr*H'Tf if; gr:trf ffi 

"fi t#:rif?'i:l-:lil*tl*tr'.3"::';^:d*".i11
ffi;il"th" .',i.1tL-"-p9', gi"t*tF -ii

lon. restricted ac'cess to thet'"L"a tte m'ultimember districts in qyestton'. resf,rlcteq BUE w Lus E

S#t"i'J"ui',iiil-iii"fr;if iffTil1."1li",11" t"m:l:"f*q'Jll:I'"'H.ofr

iffi#f,::Xilili"ii"';r'*'noi E ' denied..or abridsed bv anvone' ano td
M obi I e slstem * a, 

. "o,, 
Jt iffi ;q+ 

. [: ^ J::1r5-'T:HH. *Tfr,':tl tf *ii:H'e .Tf t. IH"r I;''i;;;; i ;;;a;o,i b."",,"" ."s J,sti ce M a rshar I put it"

"^- ..-^^--+;,,"iii-ii'-iilll"tiln. then' Iooks only to thi discrinirmeo rnal Lrrt rEurE "'t;;i';;;;it'ti""' then' looks only to th'e dq
'The test for unconstrtut" 

" __ ^r^^.^--r d+,irdtrro lli "iii,.;,ii- .na
"#&"ffi ,#'J;ii'#"r'i'";';ffi ;-J;;;isiructuieandhiitorical
tors."

fr .orn, I agree with the -standard "t 
plTl^11it"t?#-j* K,,; :i

,r',*,11T;:"ff Edr$8Elki:*":"";:",:f*;***h'1T:iS.iLi,X?i".;,X,'xii*;liltt'il:ffi t#ff;i,"!;:i*iS::*"t:lllf JTll*int€rpretation to-whrcn tne rtoolno rautsuuriE "^^"";;d";;i-6"irta * adoptld
;;"J*t,ili;" n"aino language, provid-*3^3*i ic h^r nmesi.arilv requrn
ffiffn$i! :tr#Tilil fii$trili iiit:t*l*ai:" is not necessariJv

:ffii'ffi^.il;*;r-i-iit',it" and poiaiized voting
SincerelY'

Q o.l" v* o 
ts wt ( ovtaL el 20 4 'l

Hrxnv J. Hvot:, Membr of

Decessary in light of the Supreme C,ourt's interpretation of Section 2 in City of
s;bv. bldcn.

. oroposed amendment to Section 2 of the Voting Rights Act of 1965 by H.R

"tlrifies 
that section's protection of the right to access to the political procesron of the right to access to the polltlcal process

mocratic system of government as the right to
Court decision in City of Mobile v. Bolden, a

, oT the absence of a clear standard resulting from that decision, we should
the earlier understanding that C-ongress intended that a violation of Section
be shown by proof of a discriminatory result. The proposed a-mendment

, ihis legislative intent to prohibit policies and practices which deny racial
iIg,r"g" riinority groups access.to the political process through -vote dilution
Gr ijscriminatory devices and practice. The proposed_amendment avoids

is as fundamental to our democratic
ballot. Until the Sua ballot. Untll the Supreme tiourt decrslon rn ulr.y ol Moolte \. itotaen' a

f,on of Section 2 would be estoblished by a variety of direct or indirect evidence
ine the cont€xt, the nature, and the result of the practice in question

.r1li""tin" elements euch as responsiveness of Clected offrcials which create
Ln'cies among court decisions and confusion about the larr among Sovern-

ficials and voters
;;;d"d etatute worrld continue to apply to different types o{ election prob
F"uta be illegal .for an atJarge .electi6n echeme,for a

p permlt a bloc votlng maJorlt)' over a suDstantral perloo ol [lme
to defeat minority candidates or candidates identified with the interests

Et'oii""grtge minority. A districting plan which suffers from these defects

E *ayJd"nies equd access- to the political process.would. also be illegal.r *ayJdenies equal'access to the political process would also be illegal.
of otlrer evidence that could show a violation are: (a) racial bloc voting; (b)

on elements of the electoral system such as majority vote requirements,
rb-ot provisions, and numbered posts; (c)-discrimjnation in slating.or the

l rriro.ities to win party nomination; or (d) prior history of discrimination
to affect voting. Evidence of these factors is not required in

rcievancy of this evidence would depend upon
ra not requrred rn every
the cont€xt of the chal-

n or Dractice.
t'i nbt limited to districting or at-large voting. It would also prohibit
ti- which would result in unequal access to the political process. For
r violation would be proved by eho*'ing that election officials made absen'
I rvailable to white citizens at their residences or places of employment
rreeponding opportunity being given to black citizens similarly situated.
r cairple, pumng of voter registration rolls would violatB Section 2 if
1br a iesuit which demonstrably disadvantages minority voters. Not all

r,ohibited because plaintiffs m'ust meet their burden of proving a dis-:rcult Still another example is the majority vote requirement which
Ebibitsd under the gtandards governing other discriminatory vote dilu'



B) fus,r lk, Tes|

Roa-^.Ci fesg,rrrsr a.+ aDfi, ,-or'll-
tbrt the proposed amendment does not crcate a right to proportional
I llris amendment ghows a sub€tantid rcliance upn Wiite t. Eegesthrl Supreme Court decision addressed the issue- of a constitutio"na.l
uod by that Court and as rellec{ed in the meaning of the amend.
Fg that racial or language minorities are not elec-ted to offrce in
Sc. minority voting potential is not suffrcient proof of denial of equal

lilrcal process. Therefore, merely showing that minority candidites
dacted-would not prove a vidlation oiseetion 2. Tire proposed

the pre-Boldcn understanding of the la*' that the courti will
the nature, and the conseguences of a challenged practice or
dirriminatory result.

rmndment also incorporarcs a-c an alternative standard that aC Poltc\ is illegal if a- drscriminatgry purpose *'as a morivaring
Y C,o_u-It held in l'illoge of Arltigton ilelghts t. MetropolLtai
plarntrUs need nor prove that a racial purpo,s€ wa.s i,he sole.

purpos€ for a challenged practice or polic.l'
t Mr. Hyde ha-s offered his lanzuage pr$n8 that Mr Hyde has offered his language prospectivell

Bhat rt ma)' oper the door to a proliferation of Section 2

)oac,vr,w-lw a* Lo{ I

H*rk1l,ili#i';Jlirxlr,"#[1''"iiT:::':,^:::::iffi"NtT#.'ii:'f;;,r1i.,Jiu"e"' and the thicket we'll set

fg,"f iniil*?py",!J::P:t*::,9,1iT"""*:'ii';?*t:f;

ffiir#r*ry;l'*;xnl*-e:,T34$;;;ffi I
k*f iit'?t'.**#ff ixTg*:U:rmr;::':'1hit

nti#i;ttqtltT*ffi *;"*al',,i",1t*;:T{':H:
$!T;ffi5fii::#,;;t i:*':'1,',lil ;ljr llt 

""*"1H3::

can be-rt s an rnursaLrvrr urrsL "' - - 
;ato; which may be

,?ultiu.Y, and Pick out this or that fr

oD one side, or t,gnJ o''iir'Ittr'"iiiae' or wrong' and then

. 
tf""Hr"i,t$N' so the n*iry- !il}5?:""d"d' section 2' it

HB#'fl l:x.:tq1"J,tr#,i,^i,l#:p;llt*li#"-#ffi

xffig;is#,ffi+[tt*"*ui+s*,:t

P. )?

proliferation of Section 2
that-we are not creating a nerr standard and thai *.e

hirtor.r' of Section 2 litigatioi under the pre-hldcn er,and-

helpful to the subcommittee in its review of the pending

Pr"rR 1+, Roorxo, Jr.,
Chairtun" Hots Judbiory Committce.

iEof"tto, Wlt-gsnt. No; it is not'

:+#Hr"#'&il#'"l:'JJri.i5,:'ffi::t+l[;:r,-,"lxtr would asree on' H[r;;:#;ii ditri*i"rted from the-Iaw.

f 
rlft :f H;t:1i?'ltHii,'*iiil-'irfr,":fi}-::-f"*;,,r"f :"9:t* f?#J;'";ilil'.F;;;e;;i to section 2 th'l-'l*
,,I:'Li' Intent"and il;p.; a. not a P.r.ej;tll"jf ,f"TiJ]l1ri-d"a lfrut would go a long $'ay to geurr

lf- rr



La) 0es o IIs ?. rr

D t 9 r,u5: ur-'^ o* zo { z 
.,1,',,

2:a52 
.{

Mr. Bovp' Thank you' Mr' -Chairman' 'il

".iii,Yl*di?x';,ff 
tf Ii,q;"t,ni*$lrrxH!l'"flf iHt

be modified. I q,as playing *,ih".o-" of these papers' so,l dfuhi'

h"". "r".iiy 
;h"t ii 

"'"as 
lou said. It seems to me you sald earlii.,

thatameresentencesaylngtt'utit't"t'talonewasnotrequini;;iliil*F$':'*;:+:ilf ",ii:'f iryidtle!rsJ_.r::gpi:t:,tbi
"*;i,$1' 

*l3'"iilf ie tt[t nf.lfl E'#i"tfi;ff"?:;"iti :
Prerequisite to. Prevailing in z

y#:,;1{'T$*:'l"";ef .t*',1,*t[:,:li1ii"1'i""3'":1":fi ""'$&:
also be t"ffi;i;;;; tr'o* -tt'.t theie is an intent to dtscnmrnate

;u*l$*n.si'***tlig,ilq+*'n.1",;'t"trl$,.,,$
agree on ti;;A; ;iih' T't'"' there is the questto

be furthei;;i;;ffi;;ut" d"r*iiion thanjust that' i
- - fi s"';,'.'ti'. "gli;k'hl'' 

i",t:*ry"1'3; ETi f, :t;ilt ffi
monY would, I guess' be aPP

:"iffi:g*"KSHER I wouldn't sussest:tu'o:ln"*f,i# 
A iffit3aGcustion of the meaning of

toanatlaigesituation.That;i;hibelncludedsomewhereintb.
legislativ'Jii:rt""ii-iirt t" inlf"a""'if,ut [i"a of description of di>

.arninuto-.J':"*;;1 ;;;ili"-i tJ-'i'" ip"+t kind of discriminatorf

iffi4*""idnit'H3:fti1Rffi":ffi*:'"ff]ll.}]ilIitH
l'rt"tog how to describe effec

ffi ',;!'i:,'*jlt*a:,1'll'jl;''J'Jl?"*it'"imliq.J.i:";.'HanY law;
that is,b-ptopiiul"-1f,fi u d i cial dev el opment'

Mr' Bovo' How do 1'-o' '"$oil-a;;'M;' 
wulbert's suggestion that

i"ient .to"" is not sufficient?
Mr. Buncxsnrn' If I understand the suggestion' it would be that

section 2 b" t-"n-de{ simpil:; ;;l ihii ptoor of intent is not

;'ff 
i:r;,"J",'fr"* 

jl-jli:i1.fi :tif :#t,?3i"3.,i'*"':::
professor w.rusrnr. nigrri. ift;;rd-;i,t u"'reievant in its ab

sence'
Mr. BulcxsHrn' If it means the same thing as resulting discrimi'

nation, ttut,. fine. But r tr,iiir."iitffi;;;ilt-we mean, that's what

*"oiXtB:*'T'u"'""' 
Thq!-t whv there's '9T:-fon""rn 

on this side

u" to '.r-ti"t the Fodino uil pui'iort to.ruy and what it ultimatel;-

*'itt Ue interPreted to sa1"

:tp;[,i{i.;,}i:?fri:li*$}i::,y:ffi x*i}in

,ifli]: 3;"tl# "l y l-:?*:' 
"o*'"'Jo',' I: I i!: . : 1". 

iss u e t h a t d i d come

in to a ;ffi 6;;- ;f 
"asesl 

wh.r ch *'1". ti'" issu e. of 
-resPon;i::Ttfirt1l

fo, tte'riason we discussed' I thinh resPonsrven

2053

,,ilt:iTi'"fi ,',',?Se*.X,[':!?m*t'3","fff##,:*Xif
gsvo. lYhy shouldn't the subcommittee adopt that' then' in

form?
l'*. f'a have to look again- at the exact language' but

l#il;- be a pry,Ti'ilq.:tPl'::l:
ffi"r. Gt me riad it to You' It saYs:

Ji**rl,thatther-acialE:'.1*i*s *lf iitrIt*if S"X',iii,"*HJ""J*enough rhat the racrar group a'etsfr'i;iili "iil;-ir-"fi"tiirr-u""a"n i. t"
.ry"-t^il^ tl,"HgT" f "t; that t he pot i t ical p.o"".#'i 

""ai.s 
to- ;;-i";-l*:,rfi#"'A:',p?.;;"ii#"1,[ tir"i'?i,"'n"titical proceises leading to nomina-

fii,iliii", were not equallv oPen- 
--^_ ^c ^__L^L L,nd"ttcore this language for my own purposes

I
of empha-

,:Ti#X,t"iiii#':*,:'""'I',fl lHE'i*t.,l:i"tr'r:H':'H'?"f mH$'lX
:i"i,ti.;)Jt tlel.tatott of their choice

. DrnrNPn. I think that'
!aI" ruurE Plvvr! 'T;';ilte pii*aii"s 6r such as formal or
brmer bar.rrers' ?Y9 , ^, * io nnf nf^M end has notffi:l''I!il;.iifi ii{t'it;'s}i'""!-T,t:lp:l5?IS-1n}""oDsLruuLrvrr'' I ur''r'LrT 

trr"i"'i" "o 
problem-about that caveat'

accePted in general', . l
iitiill, it "l Etandard it good,'t^-- Trhot ean take the fiioip. That can take of report language, could it

. DunrNnR. Quite ProPerlY so' 
.

. Bovo. That's just a clarrtlcatronr
DsnFNBn. I think so.
"d;;'. il iiii-i.ilir^at Whitc v' Resestzr was rejected bv the

in Mobile?



E) Qeso\lr

N,lA.Yr>-v- a) 7Ot3 urw"I

DOFe generous way
.,- 
-P".[ of tt 

"- 
p.oiri".n, as I sa-"-. is that it doesn't give courts or

:lryers very much guidance. \that guidance it gives is generalll'
ll the negative side. My own feeling is that the pluralitl' rejected
b White approach in the sense that the facLs shown in the Mobile

.'e seem to me to have fit the White standard. The words or the
rrh adopted by the plurality in Mobile ma1' not have been so bad,-h their treatment of the facts. I think, J,!'as erroneous.

:. Xr. Bovo. Justice Stevens who concurred in the judgment of the

#:rf:nd 
also joined the majority in White v. Regester, seemed

LIr. Dnnrxnn. Justice Stevens was not on the Court at the tirae
d tbe W?ite decision. He came on the court in 19?5. I think. The
I?ritr case g'a-s in 19?3

,* Xr. Bovo. You're quite correct. Nevertheless. he seems to take'$r position Lhal Gomillion t. Ltghtfoot and llhrte v Bege.sler were
Eatilguishable. because they inioli'ed registrations in ihe case of
?tras: in which you had multimember-districts next to single-

-ziu
. t,,

member districts. In the case of Gomillion, hq h.ad t"bqt n. .[[
ferred to aq "qr-otesque.fiqu,rgs" of gerrymandering which wUIi
enacted b1' the Alabama legislature'- .. i i-'8"-.o"ip;;;.i-ih.-;.i .r"'itt Mobile in which it was the.city 4
Mobile *hich had an at-large system. It didn't apPe.?r' 1t |eadt fri
iiii lrag."nt, to have thcse.particular vestiges of discrimin.lti{i
. $ i;g-think the two.particuler.circumstances-or three, if y*]
include Gomillion, are distinguishable? r1s'.

Mr. DsnrNrn. i'tfti"t the-problem with Justice Stevens'.opurrqi'
is that he will accept, as he says he will, virtually any juslificatiq
lhat the go'*rern-ental body puts fo.*-ard for what it has.{qng 1U
i6rtl.no"i we heard this moining- from the historians I think is i
graphic illustration of just what happens when you are wil)ing fo
tak6 explanations at face value.

In a iense, all the jurisdiction ha-* t9 do is..pass .*-hql I-ti,i11
.lust;ce Renquist has tailed the "straight-face" o1thq "red.-fags"

t"r1. tt the city or the county can advance a-justification. with_od,

actually laughing while it says- so, that would be accepted^by :Irrr
ii.. St"u"rrs]l tliinl he is mrich too willing to accept justificatior
that you wouldn,t, and I wouldn't, and other committee memben
."a .t ff wouldn't, and no reasonable person would accept'
-t"t.. Boyo. In White v. Regester, the circumstances which- led t[3
.orrrt to make the decision it did, or reach the decision it did-aDd
i ;p"" this to any of the three of you-involved the Texas.rulq
eteito.at rule, which required a majority- voEr as a prerequisite $
"t-rni"ution 

in the primiry election, and a Democratic, whiteori

""t"a 
orgunization which was called the DaIIas committee for r

n"ipo".fUt" Government, which. as recently.as 3 years before tbc
b"pi"-" Court came down with ils decision conducted- gpgnly
i"dl"t campaigns, were any practices lik-e that present in Mobile at
recentll' as 3 years before Mobil.e came down?

Mr. DrnrNin. I can't answer for Mobile. Jim Blacksher can do

better on that. But what I would point out, as Professor Walbert
m"rtio""a, there are different wals to prove different things_._The

i".is tt,ut you mentioned applied- to Dallas Fq"!V in the lI?ih
.*"- U"i tiiel' did not apply io Be_*a. Countl.-- So I.don't think these

*"." r"gu.aea Uy the Supreme Court, whrlh decided quite unani-
mousl-r.-, 

"as being-essentiai elements to proof'--- 
.---Fioi"=io. 

Wrispnr. The ultimate test in White v, Regester is doea-

the-minority group have equal opportunity to-elect legislat.ors of
iir"ii cf,oic,iZ hrai is the tiltimal6 question. If that standard is

rtit"'J to be proved, however it rnay operate in a- particular-
countl.-Ue"",rrJ 

"""ry-'place 
i! different-than that makes a lot of

ienie-that t1'pe of teit, I think, a-1 Mr. Derfner has said''--.it" 
"q""tii'"p"n 

language, on the qther hand. in terms of refer-

ence to DaU& County, -ha-.-been interpreted b-v some- courts to say

ifrri rrrte.. there is a'formal barrier 
-to getting on the ballot, you

lose automatically lf you don't have slating'- fi,.t kind ofinteipie'.ation of the llhite \anguage u'ould certain'
11'-be inappropii"tl It would really foreclose 'iltuaiil' all chal'

Ienges.-- 
lfi;. Boyo. Were there any barriers like that, Mr. Blacksher. in

Mohile?

Ptq



m#

tD 2;-s.>th

ChS.rrSSusrr , t5'"'l-

,#*"igf*;;;16'3*"i ; M;bii that were in IYTir* '-

##,fr *"m*:,:**+*;fff ,ry*pe,1ru
ffi rl*:1]fJ"if;$iJ&?'l'.## ;f,[' #;" f,i a"'i 

"Eii"rv 
it

H'S'X$::|]irl, or," considers that there are four-mem-

ii tt," majoritv " #fi;;"r'J-ut"- 't* in the plurality in

*t:,r"**'"f:-ihoughll,".11*.f^kl':xt*tr*#"::* rJ :,,11 "ffi"*"ff ";";"Hu'iiffi 
fi; ;;i' ; ; wi th 1eg ard

Hispanics. I thinlr y"ili" cott"ct in your analysis'
u. Rr acKsHER. , *oira'ttl^ti"p'ilt 9'"tlt["t t19..d?f1*'""':-I

ffi 'f'}:'mrff P.ffih###3i:ffi i;:i{i{#"T"xffi

rffini:i's;ffiiifffi s${fuix;';ffi '56
**},ffi 'l:ffi rr"*#"i#"1*"il,'r,lJyfi;?sffi #'"1

i3'i*f rfl L::*"*"*Bi*:irHflry'm-i#-X-:x#fi ;;;;ev a"-oLlluiJ 
- 

tr'" """'" 
tlf 

:r'm: *tf";t?1ff # tf,:
iltp"p"t"t"a district have sho'rrr' a

.. 
:m'#i., you're a*are lhat .ryr,lt,ll:,o#YilJ',S":::rlffi
#;iiii"'nm,'E$fi e'11'*'a;mivli"iii'"*e"orsome'

a lsr proDorti"ra #p'Lii;iii; ; t ;;';"iautu Pursuant to that
ni -*t l air gu age l, i'"l"illi;t"ii,-j ;;;;;; olJi'" pt u'alitf in M obita'

P. LD

b\tr , A ^'d

?*ft\*$ *qr%{^r[A"\^

' 2056

because the suggestion was f*," outright, that Justice Ma

rrjanted proportio{r-al repressntation-
i"ttj"!'ii*.fr^lf,-ir-f,i. dissent, disagreed with that analysis. {

f," a"iiit"G in note ? of his disse-nt-tJrat.thg ttt fol-:1
ffi;Ji,dtiriiiiii"-irik 

-r"ry 
to tr," discriminatory _effec_ts 

of
;;bi";ti;" -oi 

"" Ll.cto.at-structure and historical -and
iJii""ili" ilr.t goi"i to b" a t"tv easv test to applv for F
courts?

tif g*"*.xrn. I think that is a worlrable test. But I think t\J
a aL - - .L ^ 

-:-^*i+i' 
d^rtn arralr ^ I

tt,ui irtetf is a more difficult test than the minority T9"p ough! h 1

il;;&ri;;d-to 'rti'rv. 
And I believe.th-a!J:-fl"--s:: t1,:P:lF 

ifi* ;;;i";;i;;;itt;r,o"" "ot" 
is sub-mersed bv a block-'o$.

r- -:a-. :^ ,- -^,rlrr^--o-+ mcition than q qrouD who is assimed til
-"jo.ity it i"n no diffglent position t|T 

'-g'P:B !s assigned g;

"'?iii 
ii'.t' "iil' i;;;;ii,' r,o' t"p.u""ntatives' A1d i.t's. the apportiou i

;;;;il;.tion i[setf nittich is'the source of discrimination againar

it. , a*
Mr.Drnrxrn.Mr.Boyd,intermsofthepossibilities'Ithink'asl'

una".rL"a ii, if there- have been- any concerns raised about thc'

d;Hltdin"t it i. trrsuls" .o5 that languag":iglt,l^",19,.* F'
ioiiiorrat" representatioi, i think those are really -re-lative far' '

i",.r,Ii. 'l 'i;;[ k";;,- oi ".y court that has ever Seld-or a3r i
i;;;; that has ever argued, or a. pa-rty that has ever argued-fw i
ffij,j.1iffif i6."r"rt tl*. i don't think that the word-"result" i'
##ililili;;'#-i'd";;i-tiri"u tt" word "effect" in the pT.oPFqi

;;; ;;;i;.- oi'L:orgt"t"-.tt Hvde's amendment is susceptible toi
that.



(2) Sesu\\5

N-lr^.lrw*-, C,tl^tL a-t >OSb

%57

I think if vou take a rmk at the cases. under section 5 0f thcvoting Right^i Act. recogniriig tr,"r" J 
" airi.r""t [r-ia"", or p.oor,or if -vou rake a took ltiiif .."!.""tlrt rirr"-;;;"-';;il beforeMobile under the vhiti gtri,a".a, i a";;t 

-i[i"f,;il 
#il,fbasis foi-a i"".'irrut .nvioa-.v G Lik* 

3b9ut. pi-oportionJ"f"ffi
if; l i"rt',il;"' f ,l1ffi 1 

a m h a p iy to *i:'ir,-r t t t 
" 
i'.' ir,! ],r"Ji,'"'., u,i.g

Mr. Bor*o. Yours is .the same disclaimer which wa-s issued bvJustice Marshail. uut-the-prrir'iiiti'ri.[ not convinced b-v it. si'i
htl.a ;: li ;ff 1',*; ;,ti; ;;;; ; ff ;;; ;;i,,' ;;; ..i;'"il" a u,

would you have anl' objection, then, if a specific prohibition werr
ii*E ","0 inro the r*"nf-Lri-l;';;h', u,ay as to etiminate that

Mr..DrnrNnn. I,d be happ.v to put it in
#H.#ifiil',ii;;;r:;;r[id;.',fi 

jTJmf :g:,rt#rllf"$;

P 
Il

kL :: l::,__11{ !lri"' I,think proportionat representation_I havetrouble un d erstindt"q i* - 
g \, # j J;' ;;;;' i'J#:i" ffi 

.,&?;l 
:?Tplace like Mobile. thai fol, f dO *"^ lrl .^, hai a oi--r^ Lr^^r- ^_f;:':;'*:"Y*,1:;:nti,Ip:-10_q.;".*.,#";!iifi ;'.ilr[ffi;".,1'oi

ll," fff "::::f Pt,, l1';, ; fi r#- .iff,' ilJ:?i"fi "A:i';,ilii,i,lifOr 10(' -t.eafi ha-.'f ' g,vqr 4Belreru L'oUn[\'. wnlCl
Mr Ro*n Er,,t -^l:,.^_"Xo_l_plngt" blach.on a governins bodi
Y,.:,"S1 : p, .'""t rL n' l" 

" 
i oir ".. 

i",ii,1,?r iJ ;, 5"Hii'*:. iTJbe-vond Edgefi e1d Countr-

i11; ,?:::^* i:-d i -T...,p" thar where.there are piaces
:li"A",*.:,1:.!:"1;.;;;-.;d;"#ili'.,rTr7..,.ff IJf, :;norities in elecrions t a'rng -orie ;'ffi;'; h;;;;'h;;-r"i"i." rii,

rn
mi-i
at:

lro. That was rn'hat -was interesting about your proposal,
that of Professor Walbert.

DEB.mirn. If I could just add one more thing. we distinsuisha t},e results of normal. politics, with norm-al give ;ri't k;:where it's race that's reiulting-1n 
-tf,e 'co.rri"tent de

Thank you

a.LBERr. Bolden *'oulci confiini thal
Li.gyr pgiLt +: that you wouldn.t be disturbed bru heipfut, for i ti catr 1. h;] piui ; ;;i;";ahifi Tif"lh;i

*,r.As7 ;lw"1nnhanne) 
{fy'tAkua"t1h'



)-u**^,". c* zo{g'
2058

by. making preclearance nationwide, which I am sure woulff
totally unworkable

about not mandating proportional representation, obviously, g3 ,

number of blacks who have been elected in a particular commuui6 :

still is a very reievant fact in looking at 
- 
whether or not tti :

election procedure is discriminatory. I assume we all understand
that.

Mr. Hyor. Sure. It's something that shouid be looked at. And ia
effect, as long as we're talking about it, I'd like to look at tb
totality of the situation, because I can conceive, as you can, d
situations where there is a submergence or a dilution of minoriry
voting strength, but the need for it -outweighs that unhappy consi
quence. You know, Iike amputation is a terrible thing, but it may
save the body.

Under any effects test that we crank in, I would hope that tbe
court and the Justice Department could review the totality d
circumstances in evaluating whether this in fact is a voting rightr
abuse. I think we understand eacH other on that. do we not? Would
you a8ree.

Professor walsnRr' 100 pe'rcent' f onnpvoli^^- ---L -

U'elr\",t"5.'os )\ab
turilv, the propcal- q^*"*rt:*""*'dr'"'Ht"f,

",H#l';"i,i,"xi'ffi*a4^:I*I:*g";ffi 
HH

HtTffi ,'fiH*%"'"^!fr :';[**rn:r*133H*l"*"hfffi ,ffr.it,{frTi;;.'"-?:ii*"rf"ffi
ffi T':?: "#S""Hffi +_$:**n * *fll":lHi
ffi ilf,::f-ri,#Hi'H;:liis*,.ffi lir;{;iillil tadsaia befor.e

HIfrl'iEl.Ttr",ie*:,:-tr#%f if
ffJll?:, fiH& E *'rlq,fkf"tr1"Tli,*
:{ffi t},Tff ":R."n3"ffi 

#illitr*i',*rd"*-th"t

€ ) Qosd tls PZL

ment. And in fact, th_e_tLv__*i::tion_.that I would have to ysn,
amendment is that it is prospective only.

Mr. Dr,nrNBn. The problem with the prospective only sectior I
would be that it wouldn't get the Mobiles, the Edgefield Countieii
think maybe_il we have a chance to show you wh?-! the c3ses hd

for places where litigation can be brought. I think it's a
concern.

been under White, and before Mobile, that you will see that tbC
isn't anv reason for concern on that score. and that vou'd iLvgu'd Iisn't any reason for concern on that score,
persuaded that it is a^ppropriale to have a prospective and retil
spective amendment of section 2.

Mr. Hyon: Ideally, that's _correct; if it is man?geable. And yry
statement that prd,portional representation under whatever I

languag-e we would come up with is not necessarily mandated I
required.

Mr. DnnrNpn. Not only "not necessarily," but not mandated
ell.

Mr. Hvpr. I'd prefer not mandated at all, because that leaves

But I have a concem about. making preclearance retroactivg
to speak, on nationwide application-committees hunting aro

door open. And my use of the word "necessarily" is wrong. Sq
you give us 6ome language, we'll play with some language, a

,"uJ].lflrf,M*U,

maybe we can solve that problem. I
Professor l{eusrnr. Congressman, I assume when we ail talt i



3. Proyo-ht*r-l alau,rlrAi',"
ArcA;Ldl-, 0oT e* lQo .

Mr. Bovo. Mr. C,ox, in your statem
q,:Y,T[*,lf 

"ltg:':i'"?,#:":iiJit!'"",ryHi*'i,t1it:t'Do you think it
g+hsru*x,mS*trir'.ti-*,,fi;ffi
" 

Mi B*ft[3.ff_,Ji$i?":",Tn:,"f#,,Sml,lt';:n? 
--

{dtgiili$j*-d}Hi"*:#iTl#r'r""',*";:{i}
ffi ffFff'u*i^* ;r";t[t,-ifll:rl #,,^*the Rodino bi,,

that re-spon""-rn *ritt"#or 
cox' if you would p."r"t y;ffi .ul*ii

*,$I,#tr,'* ;:n,u':Tii"$#".&E:'y11-pry didn,t get thc

**"3f,y,j'T"iXlo,The question is: Wourd you believe that it ir
section i 

- 

or fi,"-V'.,iiiXor" hh f i i, "# :t * ;,;;il ;;;' ;;";ii an t to

*"1:,;LB:"#";;r*"f ;;;;d;::i"?Jfl "$.x?3iy*:i:,I*,9}.iit

;ira:r_:#uTffi 
,ht,,iiff 

;,[?i*"n jti:#,rxnT,,,[*

*Yi.,*I J #;1T 
trave !o-I h-aven,t thought of that question, rotdr'#;"fdi#*kJ*tr""_*sdc"rrri1"";;#it#

Robc,v} Bcirrsor. ( ruL&L RD^rr, 6o) o.* zot" l[** J a.ar,]

mi 4gt:;alaiiicufi"ly f i-f,r" not just tived a hietory,.but.it hn! undertat
q pgtallon, or, indeed, a pemutation, both. ip iF pu-rpoee and in its enforceme-nl-i
think all of us would havi 

-to_ 
agree_ that, originally, thb acr tira-as it" *--"narEl

purpose th_e enforcement of the 15th Amendment-and the realizatio, of the-dE
P,yqqlS,5 ya" designed to uTyT" that, onre reg..istratiorr and voting "tGIElnolvlduar vot€rs were removed, the. removal would remain and not be circumd
ed. It seems now to have become an instrument for attaining repreeentatio.r guanr
t€€d in proportion to an ethnic group's numerical strensthlln'anv evenl l-o#
piven the q.bl*liqn ratio10..2 percent as of June, fgZgl, I submii 6 you that iiE.
ffffiri."'b23*though buldengome adminirtrative' provision,', ; *gGeE;

ar^d. a-l ?LL
n{r. CioNz".rs. You m""tioned earlier in the diecussion with

Co"gt"tJo-u" Schroeder that although it. lq \"p-?-Prov9 a

-tiiu" behind * ""t 
i""t, as reapportioiment that there are other

*"".'"f *""ins thai-circumstanti{iUy' Is that correct?
IVIr. BilNsoN. I think that's correct.
iiG: Go;ilrrs. o"ia vou maybe give us, sorne ex€mple-of how

tnut to"ia U" ao"" 
-i" 

tigt t of it'r" ItTobtle decision. It would seem

;ili i" f*t a lot of theTac,tors that one could introducq to try to
;;;;;;i"."mstantiallv that there was a discrim-inatory intent are
;;G;;;;"ff,"i"rt .ri',d". the Mobile decision' Mavbe vou can help
us on that.*-fvfi. - 

il"i"sox. That's true. The Mobile decision did .eUt- the
Zim-eiita"dard. The panoply of factors is no longer available to
;;;;.6tfiit p.or" iiscrirninatorxintept So ves,.indeed, it is a
aifii.iiii-t^ira"ri o?-p.*f. I wo'.rld saythis: If y-ou go-, if the discrimi

""ii* Lif*i[ tt"i", and it can be proven, then th^e- place to do it
ilil'.il;, ""a "ot 

administrativel!, subject to differing political

^orthodoxies.-"^ivi;. 6j*in"o. So you wouid support Mr. Rodino's legislation to
, inctuae intent or eff&t under seciibn 2 to clarify that that is tbe
I b;;;;; ;T-pfua-bduse it is so difficult to prove inteat, as thc

iii-UoOit says it, that effect-if it is-going to be..onJy. a court

;iti";i;-ti"r"it it'o"id be effect a." well- as 
-intent that is looked

at. because it is so difficult to prove intent'""'[i;. E;;,;;;. N";f *"uld iot. And if vou want-a reason' I wil]
- si"e it to vou. I *o"ta not support that 

-type of thing for several

E""o"r. bi.,", ""a &.ir,, yo, ebt off into aih-ngential problqm,-and
;ffi"#;;-G'*tut$ "iieit, 

aficriminatory effect, over which there
are differing opinions._.f[j 

il;:tii" aet"imination should not be made, certainly' ad-

*i-"i"iratiuety. tt certainly should be made in an ad_versary pt.'
;;afig; if 

-dhe"" is some leg:itiTate alg*uPel.t to,,the contra-r1':e"d"tir"*, 
if yo" t"t[ aboui a flood of ]itig?!igr-,, that particular

o"orri"io, wduta"certaint, ttios on a flood of litigation' Aq -I s3y'

Iiri,it 
"r-'t "g""tot 

pr"Ui"- is what-which has- to do _with the

aiiliiriir,*iil-;ffi.i;;s..r[tr', is what are vou looklng for in the
boltlom line. G it g o"p *Pl9u.nt"ti*t Ct'',tt{ o', h0f+ (.1,



C3) gcogorh-srn'd Wg"t-sr,^^-Ll"l,t;, coy,'I

Ro\r| t v ros r:,a ( fulI 4- ts^^t- , G o\ C o.,r 
tl f a-1a"rn*l A.+ ]

o* LLz
Ms. GoNzar.Es. L€t me ask you, on that point, because you !neD'

tion that in your gtatement, to your knowledge, has any-las the-rc
been any litigation where plaintiffs have sought or where tbe
ourts iri fact -have said anything about the fact that goals under
the Voting RiChts Act, goals, in faCt, are permissible?

Haven'i the courts in fact said that foals are not permissible?
Mr. BnrNsoN. Goals?'-- Ms. GoNzal,ps. The Voting Rights Act guarantees access to the

political system. So in fact, nobody is asking for proportional repng
fontation-under the Voting Rights Act. That-is not what it is
meant to do.

Mr. BnrNsoN. That is not the *'av it is articulated, but that is tb 1

-Uotto- lGe, and seems to be the result. It wouid appear thd i
I
t

cr* Zz3

. s***:+"r*:r-m,;*:;:: 
h s a

Mr. Brinson, you 
-have 

ageed with majority counsel to the effect
ibat existing law does not suggest the need for future proportional
Epresentation for covered minorities; is that correct?

Mr. BruNsoN. I'm sorry, sir; I did not hear you.
Mr. Bovo. You have agreed with majority counsel to the effect

that existing law does not require proportional representation, ap
olied to covered minorities under the act?' Mr. BntNsoN. I don't think it's articulated that way. I think
that's the way it is enforced.

Mr, Bovp. It's the language in title II of Chairman Rodino's bill,
H.R. 3112. Were it to be enacted into law, amending section 2,
rould it not require, perhaps at the very least, quotas at all levels
of government? ,

Mr. BnrxsoN. Yes, I think it would.

7.2

Ianguage, that
not be subject
based on the

body of a covered minor-

Ju\tr"^ Bon l- 4+ t<o - rrt
\- Mr. LiNcnBNl Do you suggest that the Rodino

goes to an effects test more than intents test, would
to interpretation by courG to construct an effect

t?5t

prcentage of representation in an elected

"-trr. ,o*o.- I am not an attornel,, but I have been given to
understand that the court, to date, his forbidden the estabiishment
of such quotas in adjudicating these cases.

Mr. LuNcnrN. What^I am saying is we would be changing the
language to say an effects test, we would making it exiliclt. It
rould be an effects test.

And knowin-g- the ingenuity of court judges, I just wonder if, in
fact. that wou_ld not bring us to that situatlon? I-am not sure that
is what any of us want.

Mr. BoNp. I cannot _s3y u,hat the courts may do.
Mr. LuNcnrN. would you support that typ6 of an analysis under

an effects test?
Mr. BoNn. There has not been any requirement to date that such

guotas be employed. The real incentiv-e comes from the Federal
District court here in the District of columbia-have not, to date,
asked for such a remedy. I cannot imagine one being astla for in
the future.

Mr. LuNcnE\. Mf' question w?s: Would you support that kind of
an analysis under an effects test?

Mr. BoNo. I may..I should have to hear the arguments, congress-
man, and the particular circumstances. But I -cannot l-ugff;-it
ecurring.

Mr. LuNcnrN. Thank you very much.'



C3) gro(orh-o-r^sJt re'ere.ec,,^.\4*5^" , c,.rr"' 
t|

${r. Ta"lkrr *t ?1b
Mr. t aYtur'.
Mi. to"rr*. I have no statement, Mr' Chairman'
Mi. Eorro*ps. I'm sure you have a few observations'
il;. T;il;-si"csyou'have gi'en-me the opportunity' and al-

*,ous1-thu hou. ii iaie. I do th-ink that one of the things that is
#;fi4 

-out"Uv: 
Oi. 

-Loe*'en's 
statement, is that it is not sirynir

#"iirii"""r .6p.-"sentation on numbers that is tfre qagq' that it is

#il;;ilion iri- one.s inrerest as well, and I do think that the

;;'";;ffi;-pioporiional representation is something of a red her'
nne."'iurook. brieflv to Congressman Lungren outside after he asktld

tf,il-d'.ie."ti"". da tha polnt I made. whJch he asked me to make on

;i;; .';;;"* *=rr, ii'that we do have an effects test novt' under
;;b, i;;nJ thai'effects test has not been construed in the courts,
;;'; id, * r t ro* ii ri* not been urged in the co1*ts, that it be

;;;";a to requ-ire propo*ir"al reprlsentation. That simply is

no1,nlha11!.; att ubY1: 
--^ ^..^:----- t"

at ?-1b ' Ir
Mr. Bovo. Mr. Tayl6r, since you've raised the effects test of

Ji;r;, i woutd lik6 to pursge_ ihat fo. a moment if I might. The

6J" test is prospective and has to do with future enactments

-ii*r. lo"-R. with enactments submitted after 1965, that's cor'

S'r. no"r. That is not the standard in the Rodino bill'
Mr. Tlvr,on. Title II would apply to any current.enactment' to

ar,.il .r.."rrt practice regardless of when it was originally enacted,

tlat's correct'--Mr. Bovn. That is far broader than section 5?

Mr. Tavron. That's correct, but the question went to proportional
rcpresentation.'-'Iri;. Boyo. Are you prepared to say that that is not a likelihood?
ttat a court could not-interpret title II of the Rodino bill to
reouire proportional representation?- 

Mr. Tlvlbn. Yes; I am prepared to say that.

P,3

390

cr+ 3 qq

I think that what I am getting out of the comments that you
have made is that you are against the strict percentage system, as

well as I, just so iong as Slack candidates who are running in^

districts thit have a s[bstantial population have a good chance of
being elected.

Mi. Mensn. I think this history of the 1? years under the Voting
Richts Act. if vou look at the States covered under the act, and the
oeicentaees of blacks in those States and in those electorates, you
i*ilt ree lhe number of black elected officials is so far beneath the
ootential of blacks in those States to elect officials that that issue
ia not germane; it's something that's way down the road' And the
questio"n is, giving blacks thelpportunity to effectively participate
ii tt,u p.oc[ss-5 percent in Virginia of the elected officials is
.ertaintv not threat'ening, or quota representation, when blacks are
19 percent of the State's population.

And I think that that 
-is-you 

know, the his-tory-under the act-
in some States, the black pdpulation approaches 30 percen-t or 35

"".."nt. but the black eleiteil officials are in the area of 5 and 6

pe;;;i' And I really think it's a r4 herring 
^lo. 

sgv that we're
ioine to have a quota representation of elected officials'- 

Th"e thing thaf's impoitant is that the electoral process be set up
in such a l;ay that the blacks would have the._opportunity.to elect
pur*"r of th"eir choice. If they're black, fine: if thev're white, fine'

I U. Dnvrs. 'l hanx you, Mr. Chairman.
I I hare a separate luestion for each of you, so please indulge me
I I we try and move along. -/I llaS'or Marsh, is it your understanding that the intent of the

ldrno bill in amendirig section 2 is ta }ia"e an intent or effects
ts" a-r it is presently applied in section 5 of the Voting Rights Act?
/r. Mansh. I thfik he is trying to get an effects test. I don't i
trk. as I understand the Rodiiro iiU, iI is not to have quotas but i

,]orrect the situation.
i.

gutn.,ed ,. .



(7) gvrrpor{unna-Q- rf,{2rf4{^^\a-lue,r4, c-rr\'}

*-n1 No,,rsh , *'f

",#,h'+:i,';I;#:J#li#-*^l:'i$r:J"T:.llt.j:3il;'1:"11t
" ii :; iliJ3:' i: ii'=1",i,1"?,, t r v,,,"a 

-i 
n t h e a c t

Ms. Devls. Based oi yo" expe-rience as an attorney doing;"lty,

:ylnlli*;:'""fl *t;t'l;lul{:::l#tx,Hff Lff T}:}o'tr"""i
;;m:;"ntl*t "itt:?ffii, correct'.rhe courts have not' require{

ffifi fi fflt,*,rl-fiii*,,.,-,,*,,",*$$

kDt "(>\Er-n-^ *+ 4t"l
Mr. B6vo. Do you fav-oi proportional representation?
Mi. P*cs"*oir. A"" yoir tiltring about as an outcome or as a

voting ryrte-i^'tfr"i" "it a prop6rtional representation election

svstem'- 
Mr. BoYo. Either'
Mr. ENcsril*]'i tt i"t there are advantages to a propoT!i""4

""o.L""ntuti""-rvrt"-. 
That would be distinct from our system. ol

lii'.iiiir"r a,;t.t'dtd; pruiutiiv etection, et_ cetera.. I am talking

about tr,e si"gre-i.ilrJreiaut""rot" as used in-Ireland and else'

where-may^#;;";;;*" of tt" Iist systems used on the continent.

But if *" l.! ioirg i" use territoiial districting and p.lurality

elections, I aon;t "beli"eve *" .ur- eipect proportion-al results' The

svstem i, "Ji a"rig; L p."4"ce proportional results. scientific

i#;ffi ;;;;it%'iit Gr[ with that system I don't think pro
po-rtional representation, as q resu-l-t,-rs a proper goal'

1a..,,1h\rn McDrt\&fil &f 14to '4'11

_- 
Ms. Davls. If I may, Mr' Chairman, does.the law under section I

which p."".riiy h""";; irt"nt^ot effect standard, mandate propor'

tional representation or^quotasr-- 
Mt. M;D;;;' r(o. ei,it" honestly, and I will answer the que*

tion as dir;t1-;.;-I ca;. I tno*:tii6'char.ge is made, that people

who adrrocail'if,f "ifil"standard, 
are realiy_ s99king. propoTlrgl{

representatiorr.- w" ff" not asking for that. I think the analogy ts

wholly ,u".^#';tl th; I;;;i-j"',' discriminati:*3" Iaw is that

a criminal defendant is not entiiiea to a jury that proportionally

represents anY Particular class'

?.4

(^.\ 4oo
400

741

A black is not entitled to a jurl' that proportionally represents
rr.L^Ls: a woman rs not constitutionally entitled to a jury that
X#n;o".tlv represents women. But wliat they are entitied'to are
Il"dure= which don't exclude those groups. The same thing is
5e with voting rights. When rl'e seek sin-gl-e member districts for
1-.-ole. it is to insure that minority candidates may run without
ifi"I".it"-atically. But that does nbt mean that any black cand!
iil"*ii get electei. I don't think that any court or a-ny legislature
I, inru.e proportional representaton because the voters are the
[25 who choose who their representatives will be. Blacks can and

5 vote for whites. And a black majority community may very well

fiti#ll;re is no constitutionql requirement that that be other-
rise. It seems to me what the Constitution does require is that
Fpl" no-t be automatically excluded from the electoral process

bffi.:'i;*"fi,u.,-r, 
you.



C?) ? rD Qo{+D" o! t ck1,L"+

SonSe^,tt, rLwnr d,t**ss,utot ,Jt" \JrtLcow W t^rlL L+' 1ZZ - 1Z-g

:-ffi. s;GrNanr*1rrn. ef 
-course, l rhrnk we have to considerTexa.s being someo'rrai oiL ilq*r*lilf iliff Lyndon John-son, in his wisdom, did not inctu-ae,Gias-il;;."ffi; v",,-i-g-'n-iiiiilAct where he signed -it, ana li-toot l,-y"*;; uiiig r"r-. under

_the act, so we no-w only'have 
-6 

y;"r.. of 6rp".ifr.I'h".".I have on-e_ question in on" ;ihe; ;r;;'"d;;^'ientlemen mar.know. title rr 6r Mr n"aino'i [,ri 
"rrrill= ;ii;; E"#iH'v#;i

Fqht gct to. strike out ir,e ;;.d";,"^alnr'1i'li.ia*;r' 
""a'i"!"iiin its place "in a manne. *irict r"",rit"-ir,-! e;;r"I';, abridgementof'. we have received some--legd-;;H ;'iHi" subcommirree

D'.4

drrt this change might give a court the onnorr,rn !

Ft_ :r:F m i-n t rr e ?,;.?i ;; ;{Fi" j F!1;X,:T:ilXil tl. _#:f i ?: lircent.minority communitv erects ao p"i.urt or ii. .ity councir oftinorities, rhe Angro wourd have stan&,li-;; Jr",-o, if it was the ;

dber wal' around and onrv s0 percent .ii#tiJ.,'then the minor- i,v, Ellf:l:.,H1_f1r" stan?ing -to sue. 
i

#*H-il*fr:il#F.1ffi,,*.ffi tHi,fl:itffi:f
,.H,i*'+iil* jii?,l-,ffi 

,,f :*,h:ii""l,l,iLTx,TB,lI,:,,ffi ,ti,?r 

{i:::a :,ff#,& ffi i Ti,, ,.;;,, ;,,e t ri ed to d oie mY testimonY.

*lJ'tlTr}lit,'"#fi,1!f,1fl;' ",J!: wording or section 2 wourd be
liiiii-i-..bi*en didn,tsit we, *?i H:l::gu"c" "ra ""tion}i ii,on the other- hand, I u"riir"'iii"ii"i,=;,'i; effects test is ven,difticult. Wh at do you' -".r- b" ii..ri-*inli, 

"f,i"l,il 
".igf,t? I mean.

HuT.,ifl ::.,*:l,xl,;,+n*E,rra1auestie;..;i1ff;?"h;..,ff"?
Griminatoxl 9ir""t,' rJ; i,i.I#p"rE: f*j',l,nT llfi" wouta ui-"
which left a State 

^o. a ;uriJiciid

rfrr*ffigrfii;x*$*e*$;{{ffi$;;order to try t9 d,efine an effects Lt under section 5.We would both agree th;i*r;
racial or ethr

i3:,$"".",;i 
jrtr.ffi 

1"jfl.",*ql*,|Hliip,T#,1,1
rectie,, z-;;5"r"ti;Tt'i]t:tT: r "''"r'i'"iii"# {" *,'.a-i-,,g oi

tr"t'+:'r;1ii,J;;.ffi,tln;:ix3t,f,iXtt?rk,JIiiB'iffi

ff *#:,"f,','r*o,?#,lXt,lf, ;.'i:i*tjnl;%rlilf *;mli#n
Thqn I think. it should be clear.

tr,9i:ffT#i1tp"tn'e.;;ff fi 'Ji,f"'t,iia',"#t'3ffi :#r,Ttt'6t"iitt''i''i""'|f *1:"#:i,5"*ti'*"';";#;d:"ll'"1;."?+;il;
ff *i?i"litt**i:.1#H"lt#,!.f i,liHH.lffi'""f ,'#tl:
f#jffi' :i i$.,:rtlimlrui:-Td hou' to poriticarrv obtain
d i ffe ren ces *i ir, tr, 

" 

-iii', 

" 
i'iil',il*'.ff :ir JrH.TtF n *'* ::*i

li "::*ITi?rlo- 
+tr*" o,,,r,"i' p*,rio. - 

iii". ril,f"J"rnou I d tak e.
more about ,n.iliT"l"*tative st.ate# whr;r, v"iiffitf"."r, kroo,

)roqu* A,r^^,La- ( qnuu €P) ^* ltqo
Mr. EpweaDs. C6uld an Anglo in a congressional race, or a race

for a statewide office, or in a race for the State assembly or the
State senate, win if the Anglo came out for the Voting Rigtrts act
and for the progtams that you espouse and support?

Mr. Avlla. I think, in response to your question, it has been mv
experience that in many of the areas we have r.isited it really
doesn't matter who gets elected. What we want is a responsive
government official, someone who is going to be accountable to that
particular group, irrespective of the person's color, race, or nation-
al origin. So if the person is going to be responsive to the particu-
larized needs of a given community, then they have the choice of
exercising their right of franchise and determine whether a given
candidate is going to represent the particularized needs.

, So the thrust of all our litigation is not necessarily to create a' proportional minority representation. It is to eliminaie any obsta-
cles which frustrate the electoral choices of the voting strength of
the minority community. That is the crux of our entire litigation
efforts. So you can have persons who are non-Mexicans, who are
nonminority, who can represent the interests of the Mexican
American community.

I would cite you a very good example, Representative Glossbren-
ner, who is a legislator in south Texas. You have other Anglo
representatives from those areas which have been responsive to the
particularized needs of the Mexican American community.

p.r



@ Qrerh*d (Et,9uvltuh;', * [ 
,

Jmauin Anlita- l{Au>vfl ul ttlz
I ^ -- -o- -'-

Ms. GoxznLrs Thank you.
The other question I hirre relates to a discussion-I believe-with

Mr. White. To your knowledge, have the Federal courts ever adopt-
ed or indicated that racial quotas are, in fact, what is required
under the Voting Rights Act?

Mr. Avrra. No. On the contrary. the focus has not been on the
election. of partic-ular candidates. The focus has been on minimizing
or maxrmrzing the voting strength of a given community. An ef.
fects standard does not equate to a proportional representation
standard because an effects standard is being used right uou' [y
the Department of Justice and is being used by the U.S. Distriit
Court in the District of Coiumbia to review election changes, and
they certainly do not adopt a standard that we are going to guaran-
tee proportional racial representation. So no, it does not.

Ms. GoNzelns Thank you.

u*ri :'#.. * x#"*:3* fj), i:., :: x.
lnntage of your background and your exferience in this area.' Another issue that has been raised, and ybu ma1' have heard it, -d ear-Iier lgdgy. iq that the courts mlght appio'e. under theIino bill, which talk-s about the results" tesiiihlt tir"1l ,,,i!lr
]ove racial quotas.

;Q rygr fmowledge, have the courts ever eirher approved or
}lied that raci.al quotas 4qight be acceptable?Ir. Konssr: As far as I [.now, there has been no approval of
-ial quotas In fact, the-r' sa.v* just the opposite. ii sl"-j io me it's
iT:.t it ought to,he. Ei.eryb6d1, ought'to h;;q-d;;u"r oppo.tr:
F p participate. That is to say. 5,ou rook at Housron. foi i:xam-
t,!nt." a.re 3E5,000 Mexican Americans in Houston and youITd magine q randoml.!' dra*'n reapportionmenr plan 

"outd!E!ce,at least 3 legrslators in 100,000-iirat legisrai.ors. vou see. IDt what the courts would do in a situation li-ke that wouid be to
1r. "Weii. what would you expect " .r"ioro pi;; 1,.. p.ociuce?. OrL Justice Departmeni *'ouli sa.r'. "o*i '*-"rii'.1o, 

"r*", "?fo...p1+n to-produce." and then woulJ sugg"i, tiruii ;.hr,"i";rponsibilitv of the locar unit of go'ernme-ni nhen i: reappoi-bed.
. Is Goxzluss. So-that basically you re sa5ing that if. in fa*. the
tsiuage is changed, at teasi-u-,isea on i"]or.f;"iloo 

-ih;a ;;: ili

T,b

rt00
into the record when.the {enate bill was.introduced, which u,as thesame a-s the Rodino birr, the inteni ;f rt;'i;;s;;;'tiJi^o.u-. pu1,fn?Uir!" bill 

'r'as 
really t, i"t"., i't""irrn, to *f,eiJlt-,rls prio. to

under the case Iaw prior to the Mo_bile decision, is there anv
LiT"t*rYh' 

people shouid fear that, * ?;;t, ;r-.ir1;;"'t*;,c;,*;a
Mr. Konsrr,. Absolutery -none. I think that I was invorved intrJnng at least half the siigle-meml". airt.i"t c?ses that were triedbefore Mobite. and I n"^;u?1;;';;; ;. judgq that ever hetd thatopinion In fact. r mvseli ;;rl;-il'i;;riirJ tr'tr,i't il#;f J'ion""p,.It's- not right, but uueryUoJy 

-rrgt,i'i"'f

_ ir i,; tS. b'id&io I y o1ou gr, i 
".;i 

- 
u" j,?.ffi"5",f lttl TT[: ti,f;you can only elect one. Thai"'sjust so- 

"'io"g, ii,sJuit 
"rtltr,"ticar toeverything, it seems to me, ttrai trri.-courtroom and this counrn,stands for. arru urrr. ( 

-
Ms. GoNzer.ns. Thank you very much.

e+ \ibo

Mr. Bovo. Thank you, Mr. Chairman.- Mr. K^orbe], what- counsel was referring to when she references
section 2 and case law that existed prior t"o the Mib;lc 

-case 
was, ofcourse, with.regard to section 2 a-s it now exists. M;iii" "ri "response,to the in^terpreta-tion of sec^tion 2 as being .""tii 

" .t"rrltory codification, if you will, of the fifteenth 
"-erair""i.H.R. 3112 is not, I am sure you would aa-ii, co"si.l".rt .r"""r...r,with what section ! said befoie. It is et- t*i p;;;i[];, ;;";;;ilil

- Professor white of the Texa-s Law school; ;h;;;;".ea e".ir"i
Fu)', and other witnesses, including the congresiibnal Research
Denrrce' that the court could reasonably inteipret that the lan-
guage of titlg II of H.R 3112 to require pioportidnal represenrarion
because of the use of the language in Hln. bil.2-;',th .!sr.a to the
effects test.

Do you think that's a possibre, reasonabre potential with regardto a court decision?
Mr. Konsr,-. well, I just practice constitutionar raw; I don't teachit. so rrr my opinion as- a piactitioner. that is absolut" iros'r"lr-to

e].ote Rqp-lesentative Mor-eno Maybe if I *,a_. ;;;h;; i;o;ld ;
ll1:^g.,,9i{:l9ltl): Somehou- .tfrey're abte to ,ra".rt""a trri"i,
qu-lte dflerently than we practitioners.

You see, I qualify as a iountry lawyer m.vself because I work for
Texa-s Rural Legal Aid. u>*\n *A". -



(4 qropo{+Lcr',.J r<-?yys,a.4/Llla-l-,i- 
, f.u,a '{-

qe-o{1p Lrrhd d- \5bD ,.,r,,1
Mr. Boyo. Representqtiv_e Moreno said ,,asinine,', I think.Mr. Iionnu. Yeah. oK w;lt,l;ii-q;; nim. 

-too

Mr' Bovo. But the use of H.n. giri, it 
"r"s-iiie 

ransuage ,,in 
amanner which results in the denial'or abrrdjem"ni-'oJ; If vouinterpret ^that and incoporate it into section 7, li "r"ia h;r;";whoill' different meaning than whai ,-nl*["i'"i'fi;r; suggesrthel' wouid like it to have"

- h{r' Konau. I ha'e.a.hard time-seeing that interprerarion. and I
lfL-__1-l^"d time thinking 

"n5 Fede.i iad-;;[iJTniip;."r itf,hat wa\'.
Mr Eowlnns couldn't we make that very crear in the reporl

a-nd on the floor of the Housl,_the 
"o*-ittu". and every place else,that that's nor our inrention? oo you irri"l-ii;"r;;i;'il"6i'

XoncBr,. Absolutelv
8oyp. And_ in the JGtut".

#il-*:*:1ft'+:i*i,l?*ff ii#r'l;f ti?rili"r

. D^evrs. Thank y_ou, Mr. Chairman.
.""f,1:T I3lH?I,,rhe X.odino and Hyde [the Rodino and

*qli:{fi"fl ile#:'+fIffi;m;:*,,,ffi $*ose or resutts' " Th e iIyde, pr"pooi- ir"["r;fr&*rff#1i'
Ll$_:lX;n that the l{yd;p;d;arTiurd appry rhe effectsprospectively. r 'vuru .aPP,Jt Lne erlects

have two questions. One is, in your vJp""tt-r,""-*lii""!!',iit"assetforih"irlrr;iixaffit$,'I""ff x,t
:*,,"I:l :"$:=:Sti?, gl qugtaJof mii.ority erect€d officials:

H:;i,#gi".Yg;r[ ji,:;lffret*ffi Y,:,iYH,H"i*:terpreted the phase purpose 
"ff;tIil;i ";{^,-'i ;".:::_"u""

tr-.:rl'#T,tli:t*.#"r,r,#;g*"!Fili$:::::".i:
:::::il"sff {H"i"HeJ-1tffi""H"dH::B,trH,,x,]
Hff ;nIiT*,#,#:r:,:?g_"lr,ir3ii,,",r-"*tiiilTH"sthat the cou-rts "*oua ,ioi'h"i";;'pl#t# #ilg

a
P, /

cul \3k \ to'r-H

D.e,,*: \xu1l a* Zl"ll

2t48

Nd",r^ilL Lrt ^* ar f,?
C,ongress should r€lieve the t

""oriri"iy ]cil;;- by dtty of Mobite vby exer.cising its

irrrs, aru wn,ng oplnrons {, Ctry of Mobib v. hldcl tOO S..Ct. iruch uncertainty concerning the pioof 
"*e"i"y t" oA.-Umfi ; d;;irirment of the right to vote 6n a""d""i-"i:-,1-"1'-^; aar^- i- .;^r-.:^_ _.

rrLr wrrLErrrrrrE Lne prool neceasarv to establigh a denial orment of the right to vote 6n a"cdoni-or-";-.;;i coror in vioration of thetlr Amendment. Congress cannot and sto"tal"rf*-mnr ra arra-.,r^ ^_^jc_should. not attempt to overrule;p;.ili;
,3*"{:*::n^*Ilt1"l,li jf Q;;-;i,ir",i.c,il;&:,H;:f Hi"ffii;
*"t3 

.*:x,:*"**tx^:{;h"-c.ffiid;; E'i*"* crearr5, does have
1;l:*n:?:-.IT-g?:c_Figq1"i"e1,;tit,tl;"iir-;&;t#:',T,t""trdJ,:i;o.€nacr measures g.orng beyond a-ny constitutional rfruiremJnT"i" ;;#;otrzen' agarnst undue ris-[ that thi ,ig],t_!" ;oi;i" Giff;;;;-".";;i #
,f*":l*,,::^"{.thg{{g"tl,+*t,a;p;ir.rh"ifr -1f#""rEiiTfl*,,1i1il,r,5
3*rW* ", " i i €iiiii.' iEa ir"lH.='dbr :'# i t*' #f ffifltrhXl$ ilrDt years.

h.the problem of draftsmanship is difficult. we belir
'iii"ii'r,-.i'"":iif ffi ;ffiHktabrisha-.""-^.r.oxi'l".lT'*?:ry^":^U-!relieve the confusion ;d' 1-mol: yoif"blg and more-protectivethat set forth in the

rdditional, statutory :-1f13 l!: Iitufq! amenament u;;;;p;1ronal, sla[urory protection which Congrees believe 
v-e s *pq-

the protection""i fi;;;;g rights guaran,."a urt,"rr" 
"ttr^H:ffi:



4, (ac..'"-l Blo<- Va.linT f mtan rA vA\ I vrLD,lu*,&u
Qo[ry] ts',"*g,rn" (*+t- eorw, 6r\ q-t zob [a1ar"sf +,* Ac+]

necessarily based wirs the argued eriitence of racial bloc
ii-"""t*iia 6 ti," Gtr. Htf,o"gi, 

"erei 
substantiateC by the -Attorney General, lb

llisa;iat;"".1;evertheiess founil block voting based [pon {1) the_unsucceesful.c.D-
p.i;;a-; tl;ct c""Jia"t" for the Board-of .Educaiion.ir tsro,' ylr.e1e11^^[
il;;;;;. t if"rn", ""i.o*iy 

t*t t 
^".off 

election with 45 qglcent o{!!re 
-vote I

sii.'s opinion that bloc voting existed in Floyd Cou
Demociatic United States Senate Prirtary between Talmafue an
Jackson, who was making his frret bid for offrce

oaa
Philosophicall5' speaking. if t couta convince tnis Uofy and the Congress of ary-

tbing, I *'ould plead (1) for the recognition that, although racial bloc voting ma1'
r-ict, it is not. I submit. a-. w'idespread as perceived. and it does not exist or prevail
in all areas of the covered states, and (2) the encouragement of single shot voting b1-
niaorities is. I submit. jusr as separatist as gerrymanders. and i6, indeed count€r-
ptro<iuctive t.o the democratic ideal.

In Rome. for exampie. as '.he court held, blacks often hold the balance of power in
olections. and, thus. "Rome's elected offrcials have been quitr responsive to the
interests of the black community." In short, there has been no true bloc voting in
Rome because there ha-s been n6 impulse for it; the people of Rome have all 6ben
reU represented. I am sure there are many other examples of the inaccuracy of the
btion of racial bloc,voting 1 _, _: ,r

u*& a"[ ?-ll
Philosophrcally speaking, l{ I -could convince this body.and the

c";;;;r;T-""*t iiell-ffi"ta plead. one, for the- recognition that'
f,hEo;-h i..i"i'-Uiii'i,oti"g-mai. exist, it is not, I submit, as wide-

;;;;";';;;."ir"it, u"a iidoei not exist or prevail in all areas of
the covered States.-'i;a, t*o, tt " 

encouragement of singleshot voting b.y minorities
i",-T-;;5;-ii, Just a"-i"i.iuli=t a:s gsr,.vmanders and is' indeed'
dunkrproduciive to the-democratic ideal'--il n"';;, io. "*i-pi6, 

a'" tire coqrt held, blacks often- hold the
b.i;"* ;a'po*", i"''"fd.tio"i, "1a 

thus Rome's elected offrcials
have been oirit" .urpolrri* to the interests of the black communit.v*'- L ;h;;,";h;; #; L""n no true block -votipg in Rome' because

there has been no ilp"l; for it; the people of Eome have all been

;;il-.;;;e"i".i I-ffi;il there arsminl-other examples of .the
inaicurlcy of the notion of the existence of racial block votmg.

la,r*r.4 C\1hurn (S.a. H.r.^44 *fia"'sC'**\ &+ 259

And, les6 than three years 8go, I fell nctrm to an election method rarely eot
outside the South-the irajoritirunoff requirement or SOpercent plrE one rrrle. t
ran for the Democratic Party's iromination for Secretary of State and, although I [6
the field w-ith 43 percent oi the vote, this discriminatory device forced.m_e into 1
runoff election which I ultimately loet. Even though my support came both from thc
traditional white power structuie and from others- of nly o\r:r-.race who wished 5
eee a black in a dtatewide office, I loet. I cannot help but believe that thgse r[
ae"iaed this election method envisionod the inevitable result of a blach facing r
wEite hTd to head, an-d-the rosultins regi4ll-lPli1g!:,

J*r\rr.r, B,>-d- a-+ ?<"1

Mr. Bovo. Thank you.
With regard to the election in Rome,

did not-the candidate in that election
receive 45 percent of the vote?

which took piace in 19?0
ultimately lost; didn't ht

Mr. Boxo. Yes.
Mr. bovr. Doesn't that represent considerable crossover white

vgte?

-Mr. BoNo. Yes; it does. It also demonstrates that had the election
U.." freta under the old system, that the candidate would have
been successful.

Mr. Boyo. But the white crossover vote is present in those num-
/bers; is that correct? '

Mr. BoNo. Yes; it is.
Mr. Bovo. Thank vou.



U) nff^'4-[ B\o.-val'n1

Dr. la,lles Louwan ( tln; of V+)

Ses r?e* ?e ) {5 - 2bq @llaelA\

' 21(l

TESTI}IONY OF DR. JA]IIES H. LOEWEN, DEPARTMENT OF SO.
CIOLOGY, UNIVERSITY OF YERMONT, .{CCOIiIPA:r-IED BY
\T ILLIAM T.{YLOR. CATHOLIC UNIYERSITY LA\\ SCHOOL

Dr. l,oeu'ex. Thank you, Mr. Chairman.
I have a prepared stat.ement and also a one-page list of six major

conclusions of my testimony that I would hope could become parl
of the record.

Mr. Eowanns. Without objection, they will be made a part of the
record.

Dr. LorwnN. My written statement provides my experience. I
have testified as an expert at a number of lawsuits in u'hich the
courts have found that dilution of minority voting strength is un-
lawful, it violates the guarantees of the Voting Rights Act of 1965.

In my oral remarks today I *'ant to emphasize several conclu-
sions about racial bloc voting in the South and its implications for
black participation in the political process.

Racial bloc voting-its presence or absence-is an empirical que*
tion. That means it is a question answered by the data.

Part two of my statement describes briefly one wly of measuring

these methods,
racial bloc voting and mentions two other methods. By means ol
these methods. the data can be analvzed ouite preciselv. so wethese methods, the data can be analyzed quite precisely, so we
know how the whites voted, how the blacks voted, even though weknow how the whites voted, how the blacks voted, even though we
were not in the polling booth with anyone.

?'z

ox e1O

:re not in the polling booth with anyone.
I might add that in the Floyd County election that I used for my
ample, which was the same election mentioned by Mr. Brinson,Iexample, which was the same election mentioned by Mr. Brinson,i

did find white bloc voting in Floyd County and in Rome, not just in
Flovd Cnuntv. outside Rome. which misht oerhans be misinferrd
drd lrnd whtte Dloc voung rn .

Floyd Crcunty, outside Rome,
from Mr. Brinson's remarks.

ght perhaps be misinferred
from Mr. Brinson's remarks.

The question then becomes one of theory. Does a given level of
white votes for white candidates merit the term "white bloc
voting"?

Mltanswer generally is to use the 160-percent rule. If 80 percent
of the whites are voting for the white candidate, while 80 percent
of the blacks support the black candidate, then I would agree we
have found strong evidence of racial bloc voting. That is an arbi-
trary rule, but you have to be arbitrary at some point. and I
believe this is the most scientificalll' defensible point.

The reason both sides figure into this definition is this. Some
times a nonviable black candidate has run, perhaps putting out
only a token campaign effort and getting. sa.v, 40 percent of the
black vote and no noticeable *'hite support, Shouid we describe
whites as a racial bloc because more than 99 percent of them votpd
white? Under those circumstances, I think not. And the 160-per-
cent rule would not make that error.

Having defined "bloc voting" and having established three ways
to analyze for it, what are the results of my anall'sis?

My written statement details them by'Siarc. M-v basic conclusion
is that generally. in eleciion after election. fror:', 1968 through 1980,
in the jurisdictions I have anaiyzed in four States. whites vote as a
racial bloc. The correlation betn'een percent white and votes for
the white candidate is typicallv 0.85. often 0.95, and even 0.99.

Now, a correlation that great indicates aimost a perfect relation.
ship, because a correlation of zero means nc relattonship between
race and outcome at all, r*'hile I is perfection. a roi,ai relationship,

2it
These are a-stonishingly strong results. 

. 
Whites u,ill ..,ote whiternore than Democrat^s 

"'iir torc-b"^rilg,i. or than r,r.hites u.ourdvok Democratic in,Northern 
"r".tio"J"rrl"c voting is nor diminish-ins. or if it is, only' at 9 stu.i"f-'lrt" A;.^_S_t"te, that includes adiiision of pre-19?5_;t^e119;; ,err#porr_f g?5 elecrions across theSouth, I found that.the proportion or iunites voting white decreasedhom94 percent to 92,percent, 
-t"raiy 

much morernent.No$. we have anaryi"_d "6q;ir;;l;j.l;;i';a;# btoc voting.one claim r+'hich I have.sometimei i,""ia is that it is not iace that&termines the white uto. 
"ot"-lri'"Jo'methi.,;-;i.;: 

'i;;;;", 
p".-b8ps, or education or some otter u"ii"ite. ThiJis not so. Fiist. thisrpproach is u'rong in theoiy. ir.'ii'il".r.im.ed, for instance, thatrhites have higher.in_comes,-so the-v-relr'ond to a white candidaterhose positions on the issues u." -b." ]r;;;di.i;'irigiJr'',n"o-"

residents, *'e must note. that l;;;;i;""me rs _part and parcel ofrhat being b.lack mean: ir. ttf";;;; i';""re studied.I would refer vou to.tlble 6-on irg" ji {or a1 example. It makeslittle sense to me to partial out s6m? oi tt" effect of income. thusfus'ing less effect dye tg .r.-". tvto.*i=., trri.'"pp."or.t,'ii'.n..orc.factualll'. In South qTglna,iaig j',fri'ti" anatl.sis we need t,o testthis ctaim' I examined three varLtr;; i; 
"aa,ti;;i;iu"Ii"in.o,,",education, and percen_t yrrl ,i;;;; ,1.;rr.1;;.;rr.#ii".,i rit"ry

ffifl:r3:i.,#igLt 
be ,ugg"rt"d t";ilffi voting, other than race.

e,s,n\rrraL



tt{) Rcr.c,ta.L B\oala- Voh*l , oa,,'t

)crtt*o LOe.vte,r,t gou, t I

^v 
2.'l I
I found that none of these three had anlthing like the strong

effect or race on voting. correlations were Lero io.5. rather thai
the nearly .9 correlation between race and income. \\,hen i looked
at the effect of each of-the three, u'hile eliminaring an-r' effeci from
race. even these small correlations decrea-sed tct-zero or became
negative.

Finalll'. in contest afrer individual contest, characteristics of the
candidates seemed to make little difference to u,hite voters. For
instance. I anall'zed tu'o contests in a Mississippi count-v, both were
black versus *'hite -contests, both for the staie legislaiure. In one
case, the black candidate u,a-s not a high school griduate He lived
in a rather different part of the district than thJcountr. that I r*'a-.
analyzing, and he ran a lackluster campaign in rhis counqv.!"rn*r-
ing perhaps 55 percent of the black vote. He recei'ed leis "than l
percent of the white vote. The other candidate. aiso black, for the
other -position, was a college graduate and a college teacher. He
wa-s the incumbenr, the onll'- black at that time"in the entire
Mississippi l,egislature. He lived near this 

"o,.r.,r-ol 
and-campaigned

extensively in it. He won more than 90 'percent of the blaik rlotesin the count-y. but again he received less than 1 percent of the
white vote.

 ryong u'hites then. race t.vpicalll- derermines eiection ourcorne.
nothing but race.

. NoY'having shor'n-the plevarence of racial bloc voting. u-het rs
rts rele'ance to the \-oting Rights Act? I think it ha-. thiee points
of importance.. and these -are the three finai pointa oa ;t ffi 

"imajor conclusions Frrst, w'hite bloc voting indicates so"nrettring
about white attitudes. An election is like a h-ug;;pi;il, poff , afG':
all. of the entire community, at least of its votiirg riie*ue.r.

2i2

A polarized erection shows a st,r por-arized community. changesIike school desegregation anJ ;h;' ;"d oT trr"-lii.i"r]"n of brackAmericans from-mdters and .esiaura,ts taue been exiremery im-portant, but they have not vet ted d a;;€ifi; ;;ti'u.d*: p*:ticularly u'here iolitical po*ti i" concerned_. I might point out thatgreater changes than th6se took piace in [ne Sffi;i; ;;
il" :i i.,jjT3'1Xi; i:i,t;;?i #ff. ff tn e ueii a r r oi [ffi f :l,Hl;ff;

Regarding poriticar participation tod:y, the situation is anarogougto the schoot delegrigation befoie _tt6' ;;;i;;-;;;;;"s"tion ofabout 1969 0r 19.70I.D"uriqg -tt"-i5oo;, d.t#'o"!i"B'rrh whites

i;l:,f il,llltll,l$:,:;i:'ffi q$,illl,"i"f ;Etrtd';*titrsoutherners have come to accept dEsegregated schooling. They nolonger feel that civilizatign *ii 
"o,,,; F .n end iJ-itacks andwhites attend schoor together. g;t ;o 9u"r,^ c[.""!"i* Lt", pt"""in politics. There whit6s stil ;;;ifert u r".io"i a"i}-i.rrtion todeny blacks even mino"iti ."pi"r"ntation on-!r".ilr"'boards innran)' areas.

with regard to politics white attitudes are stilr segregated andwEite bloc voting shows this.
The second ri"ro,, I i;i; on the presence or absence particular-lv of white broc voting i" [u.u"."'li;iit". ;id';;;, then incombination with cerrain eteciion p.acticei,- ura;k;.;;"h"d them_selves virtuallv deprived or 

" ct.rc!- to^p.rti"iprt"-rriJaninefury inthe political pioceis. owi&;"-;-h;; of socioe6onomic facrors men-tioned in mv statement, in"order rc-h""" , .o"gfrlJ:"quJ chance toelect a candidate, utrc-L" -"rl-loi,p.,r" berween 65 percent to ?ipercent of the totar popuratio_n. Theie are not -any .iti". or coun-ties *'here this is the.6ase- wii";-;t".ti;r";"^ hlid ii",iirr*iau o.citywide at. large, blacks, tt 
"r"ioiu, 

iise \ryhen .;;;i";;e dividedin unusuat ways, .rather than di.,iai i";;^.;;;;.i, ?ontigrou.area-s, so that brack areas become roiit Grc ;;ffi'ma]oritl.widedistricts. then asain blacks G", "rii"!1;;;;dt;'.i",t#;Black candida'tes. ";J";;; il;;'ii* 
"" "iii""iroLofi.,e r,* 

"chilling effect on black poriiicaj-.roLiiirrtion and on wourd-be blackcandidates.
It mieht be interesting that so few candidates ran in Floydcountv Lefore the succesi?ur ;[j";o; tu the majority vote requiremg!t,and so man-v are running"no"i--
The final element o1 .*riit"'uioi"roting relates to an additionall-e-qacr of segregatior, rike ih"-"irirrli"ar rinks. This is rhe socioeconomic position of btacks, *hicti Grm;;i;i;:diif;i",i it", tr,"tof whites.'The statistili i;';t1;"6;I m-r- prepared starement arrfrom th-e l9Z0 censrrs. t b" 

-;;"e, -arra 
some change mav haveoccurred since the,. We need-tt"' rDiio ;;;.'ffii;;:;rri^il;iliiterate and semilite.rt" raurt-.'"."rit"a in 1gT0 are stili arive in1980 and are..probabl; stiil 

"ra*j"rirrca.Dtack*s stili rent disproporylgnally compared to whjres. and eo
foq,h So this socioeco;6*i;-ditr;;;;;".
l,dr ii 6- ";;i"f iil d;;;;tr,, ; ;;Hi, ;,1".f 'J; ?l ffi , f flffi H.}to their percenrage amgng .",L,ister.a 

-i,;lp1i. ;;li-;-;"poff ii
rff#:lltil"'ilIi#xi:-,ffi-r*f ,H*;a,:l;q_H*#',ffi

p.3



CD ftoua-l Blo.-. Vd n1 , c^rr.']

Ja*. s Lo uuUt t (sv tL
tu+ a -?3

273

diflicult fog. white 
-officials to serve black interests. For black inter-

66Ls often diverge from white interests.
Black residents of this county, for instance, in Mississippi, have1: interest.in renter's Rlovisio-ns or in st.ici'.i.r6.""iir";t of code

Fguirements regarding plumbing. Whites do not.
ltre continuation of white bloc voting-worries me then regarding

the future participation of bracks in -the potiii."i ;;;;";. in the
South. The 1980 .^"T_T worries pg,.rof 1n!;;6 b:;;; it ;;;
Ig_s: : : l::9_:f cou n t-v I evet red i stii cti n gi- 

" 
;J ;t ;;;;ppo rti on _

Dent to confrrm F the one man, one vdte .eqoi.;;ent.'Wittout
&e protection of the Voting. Rights Act,.includir; il;;; S, ;;;,
@unties are likel,v-to move to a1 large 

"t"ciio"i-&?J.rimanae."ddistricts that wilt keep incumbents "in 
"4fi;;-;;;'kffi-'boards ailrhite.

By 1991 I hope tJrat white broc voting is decreased, so that blacksrre not shut out by such policies,- ant 
"o-ti,ri-*"-'Ja-n"inre. trratwhites no longer.oppgs.e tfre possibirity or ut".-r. poiitr.ii'po*"r with

such unanimitv. I think ther-e is potenriar f;;r;h;'fi;iiig at thattime. but the 
-ractual iii"riion ffi;;"il'd;;;-;iir;;;i."t"en themost recent white voting statistics'sho# ttl "l"i-;'h;r- for thecontinuation of the act.

Thank vou.

a* 21b

,#t*TI.'iT;.,t""her suestion I-h,aye has rc oo wrr

it}ffi 
,i,".#:,,*f.*,;I"**qH*ri::r+n,i*f##

f;,'t',,?,,,i'il1r"'.rli,?rtX,,:,::nfl f ::AitTffif YiT;:lli'I
^__D., 

Iopyrx. Even r+ithin the sam

f$'#Uli'*-g{li&tr;il,i[s,$rxr'ir]T':'#"lH"aE:

m.'mmg,':*rumw
*",f 'f n:.i?,i,r"_lT.,i*fr ,ryFffi sH;,Titl",ffi rril&
ff ,gll]?:f; who vote blach has never Ennr^q^r^^r .L

1,:'qqqii{""]ilil*,tti,'"q:irff ',:1?el;gilifJ:J?t'i:l
irrnq. but I thinh tn€re rs aiso some ,rJI*gY"Jtncations ,ra iti,"i
*ntificat,ln. with whit.gs *r.," 

"i"'"u',ji']Tlortion. 
qome fear, some

S"T,tr-'-il"-fr ;#-:fi'--$*$i{"{q3*ffi
a.t oJ'?')

Mr. Boyo. Dr. I-oewen,.h,ave,yo.u made an1, studies. completed
en1'-studies outside the soirth n'hich examine it 

" 
*[li"'uio. i,otiri

tendencies eisevvhere in the countr-y?
Dr. L,oru'rx. I have read some in tte ltgrature. The only study

that I person_qlly conducted was in Cairo, ttt. 
- -

Mr. Boyo. What u'as the result?
Dr. Lorwrx. The result .'as that cairo is an exrremelr, raciallvpolarized town, and was throughout the 1960t.'i";;"-;;;;;

through .an4 noticed. all of the displa-v= of t"rrgl. 
"ra-ili".tj".r,"for sale in local sen-ice starions. ana i naa ,"o-E. -.""n t["t-u"ror"

in a filiing station. Thev are readr.,

^, 
Anry'r]',.Cairo manifested racial bloc voting to a ]evel greater

uran rhat I have ever seen in South carolina or Georgra."It u,a-.exactl-v .on a par with Mississippi. so it did certaintr.'- siow racialbloc voting on a very high level. '

?" Ll'



P.f
t0 Q.o"c-t a.\ t loc Vo|, \ t r,fv, 'l

l\r. €ru,slrurn eh 4St - 4{t
Indeed, within 2 years, the figures. were impressive in terms ofverv dramatic i.rcr?ses in braci r.iiri*ii"r.'6;r?;l;."chisement

has been virtualy eliminated 
"" 

, *ia"ffiil iiii,itirroughout thesouth today. But that is no reason to assume trr.1 ai.".iminationwithin the electoral process is 
"o 

io"!e;"1;;#;;Iy. I berieve itmost clearly is. l
The focui only-has-shifted. It has shifted from the ,.""i;;iemphasis on deniar of the vote to a new^emqhasis on dilution of the ,

vores. we are no\4' confronting il iir; s;;ih ffi#ii"rr a secondgeneration of electora-r discrim'inatron issues as efforts are made toadopt structurar barriers that reduce_the ;;t ";;;i^;pact of thatnew black voting strength within it" Srrif[i;SH;..'
As that brack voting,itrength increased, iar;;;Iff;own that ffiiracial rhetoric in.souIh"." iotiti.i- d;;;;d"el-ji"l'li", does notmean that there is no longer-co.rfli.t u"a-potarizriiorr-u"t*"en theraces in sou thern por iti cs. ?ota.ir.tio" i.-p*e-iG.#"'iir"o"sh ou t thesouth, and it is especialrv 

""iaenil" el""t5."ii"i;;#, and indeedit is this polarization th;t m;k; ih;-;ifi;;';;";;"""" important.I would like to glv: you;usia few quick examfiJ. #prrr.izationin voting patterns. oni ytiry r".""t i]rili;tiliif"#i"r. from rastSaturday, we hg]d a speciar"ei".ti;n l; tl\;;;;;: #il; orteans tofill one of the district'seat. 
". "r. city council. It was an erectionin which a black candidate *ui-opp"orud_lt-r-;i;ile candidate,neither of them, of course,- iniimbents Th-e registration in thedistrict at the time of-the 

"l;"Ti;;';"s 50-98 perce-nt brack, and the
;];flill:t;J:. ** that the-Llacrr canaiaat!-*"" ,,fiii 8,0,s4 ;;:

Precinct returns in that election crearry-show a polarized patternbehind that outcom" I! ;h;;il"irv_-'rri-t'iu.[ i.'J.i".t. in thedistrict the brack,candidate-ie"L;""a 9b.g percent br tr," vote cast.In the virtuarrv att-wtriie fr";i;;i;a; uLir.. ..#ij.tu'."."r,red 9.8percent of the "vote 
cast.

There is nothi.ng unlcu.e about that mttern in the south. Indeed,I have seen simila"r p.l;.irJ;Jii"g'pr,tt"rns in a number of Iouisi_ana Parishes and municipalitG,''*[ir"'.;il; ;-;;'"rp"rt u,it_ness in vote dirution casls. i tlr;" 
-documeni"ed po'iarized votingpatterns 

.in- police jyrv erectio"r i" r,"uiii;;;, ;"fi;i'Loard erec-trons. and elections -foimunicipai 
council.The pattern is extremely;;;;;;.

, Furrher evidence of ,i.irfi""*ii

il.i.*ft tu*:T'rif :,Ar::{,#:[r,l*,,f.{tiriii,H};lJ
of Texa-s e. A M., wtlch 6;;;';t in the September 19?8 issue of

Rev . C* l,'s lla,rris &+ {O t
Pnrp,c.nro Srerruexr or Rsv. Cunns W. HrRnrs, Hoprwru. Ve.

rr't-r'name is curtis w.-Harris I am presidenr of-the Southern christian r,eader_jrrp conference for the sute of r:i.g,"]"-i'i"='ii Hrx":"ri.''i';;s;;;:+fri popura_uon of Hopeuerl rs 28.0(10.-of *hich lu"rt 'g:';;enr 
is black l am the ministcr ofunron Baptisr church in Hopeweil. sir.. rgtrir.'2. I-hare run for erected office inHopewell l ran for citv duncir ri;--;i,,;'i;an for.congress rwice; House ofDelegates once. I sti, o*" sa,ooo r.oi".i,-i:'ig;a 6r,gr".rionri";;p;;.'drly oncedd I even come crose to r+'inning. and tirai'wa-.-in the city councir-race u,here Icame in fourth in a fierd,of s ""iaia"Li.';i";;";, then.onl.r.3 Councir seats were

fffif#.il?t,l1fll.l ".u-. 
,u_u". io,i. tr,".",".u-. , h;;; ;;;,t"*lfi._" .na

I have been the victim,of racial block voting in each of m1.. erection efforts.ln Hopewell x'e have at-rarge a*t,o*"rr,-*"r'rEoest precincl ir ro:ii!-r!'t..g" ,".be others and Ls 99 o"r""u i'hit" ni;;r). p"..lrir or the time the winner in thisFecinct, number J, ii the_winn". in tr,"'ir.'.ii"".'rirr-, is where wh.ite peopre livernd I get verr' feu vores in. thar. precincr sr, pui.".,, 
"1 

r,i," p"prrrii'irroiGope"rettlrver in rhat precincr. and the.v.dJn',-;;; f*;;'s* of the seven councir Memberrhv-e in that precincr r$.jthin Z'UI.*k-oi 
"..;;ril.;I am the onlr black pe.son *'ho-has'il'i#;ffi;" in Hopeu,eil other bracrr. haveirn drst'ouraged becausr the.r see no 

"i,ii"Jol*i'n'ning

lli"fnnr,. of the American Academy of political and Social g;

-r*:lr"t*:Ifit.];11}:,*:"1.1T,ll:13g3,:,?:fl 
"'j:,',inf 

ive
.First, voting in large 

_southern.cities tend to follou-racial lines. Blacks*h:#:f j; i;,*# " p,.ii., t u i' c;# il.;:'and th ar d "&;ti,l,:l,irll,?,1
,,i[T',*#Hil]HT,;5tff 311'.0?lT,oil:i".:x,ffi#ffi 

"i,"EI
whites do so.

*tffi+':L,ii?l .le*i#i'1"1:ose raPidrv in the re60's and

#i;:;:lJ'l-,"1H",:lt,:li"'ii.?'i:,"tT:r,Eli*H:??f,i:H
voters, both brack-voters;"d ;hil'u"ot"..,.and it is this polariza_
S;.t*'ilr.m akes'ot" - 

aif uiion ;;;" :" important isau; 
-in - 

m

tiz



gl Qruc*o-t B\oc VolrS , crt. *

fl-I. Er5sku"^ a.{' lttto '4b1
Professor Engstroin, this racial polarization, does it exist outside

the covered jurisdictions?
Mr. ENcsinou. I am sure it does. I have not personally docu'

mented it. I have not seen it documented by other studies, but I
strongly suspect it does.

467

Mr. Bovo. If you think it does, do you think the subcommittee
should consider expanding the act to cover the countrv where it
does exist, in order to be fair?

Mr. ENcsrnorrr. If.polarization is present elsewhere, preclearance
would be very effective.

If I thought we could enforce preclearance effectively nationwide,
I would support it. My concern tlere, when you talk about it being
onerous, is not on submitting authorities but on the Justice Departl
ment.

From everlthing I understand, the Justice Department could nol
take on that task today. If it had the resources to review all ol
those changes,,I would have no objection to nationwide application.

Mr. Boyo. You oppose, generilly speaking, at-large'elections
which involve bloc voting, do you no[?

Mr. ENcsrnou. I would oppoee them in contexts where there are
racially polarized voting patterns.

Pb

$^ (trus tl,nbon o* uttr

Ili#,JJl::}":l;i,*$l:".*iiiF:#Liilr,T,r*:'aH;took th ei r"b"t tot. 
.ir. 

ihT.n:,j:::ll1 ^ryo. 
*h, te people came in an I

tr";xte,",:,sr,flii:,ITi:ffi :;,rlti,:r*tl"riiru*'
f il:111irr{#!#j,r6tr-ei+*f *l,l:il#J,til:"#j

#$fr *tuil8*HtHf:,""{filti,-:",x,x,i[":qtt1,ffl,.',i#:l 
"Tff ' :1, #r . "oti 

nl i;;;;il.,' " 
bi ;; k*' ;;; ii altl r.o-

.rr- i uBaI ui. i ;;,# ;ijl.B 
tolra rti ci pa te i n tr, 

" 
gou"." i 

"!..o*iii[ po r i t i -

o.ua oJ- {S'O

u"il;;:' t:-|f" TlJ3"["' ^'t'-it' 
precinct two lt'h

trt*nq,*rrum;gtN*;*r-flt*ffi
ffiifrffi',fr#Fi;ir6r-:'rs,"#i}:,Ir::::,6r,hewi,;;y;Liil;

fu***fl
- ___.1_, 

-_-o_aLa{

tr"a-*V Soqbe.r (\e.r: Cr,*+ A.,, Ccv,l rck D1na\s l.a^^r) 4 4qf
:Tii.H{,;{itr"J,l:,r?tr1i*io.;.r,;p,"i?:s*-B,g,th.e,A*<,rne),Generar91,9151'S14ft nti;.ffir,ut#i$,",:T,r.',lrffiioH",ri
ffi :ii",?:tthqil::,"tilIhx":*ittu#r::j[:i?kit'",'"'9:;:fri{$:*3?"*ifi ,illi',l;;iffi ::*'r?lij

i,r!,*iifl "fj!-r:*H:F$:}#""J j"H;.fri*".::,i j jffi lf ;!*iilI

;{, in: "?it, ":i:. 
,; ';(,' :H.r'#:

lllr"I: j|,:_;1,-l,",Til"i"iir**ffi1tq,'t""t"a.rh."..'-ti.''Str,f d:il,:';
Hiifu di#*';-x*:Ifr #,r}liqd"ryjflifls'Hi1,rr,#:tTplffX,*q',f,f :"S,#ff T*:,:,,#.i:.:"$',tffiif 

i'hi:tft.,ill:i",il:
tty candidate -wi,fr; ;###i#*.#f".; ,*l*general eleciioii ,; ,,rru.Lv candidate with a minl-rir;';r;:*.#f".; ,nrXl?

fi i{i#i#:Ai*,;:rla*;tH,.pi:::-",itthepossibrit.vorb,ac,,

itional system o?

l general election.,;

[^[i1 nub.ltc "fril;lii

r**tn:uir;lii!*nit-#jffi *-#i

tr. s"r"."i'"i:;i;"": * ::f,= piuralityl-6'ffi!



(4) Qr,-uil CJI^,c VAnA , ctr.,*'*

k^^r1o^a C;n-+ R., (t.!,t Ch DnApr l&uJ , ruponl cL+ St'{l

Aprrxorx B: Reqer Broc Vorrxc

Y#"S ::":lr,:lI^*f^wilt reach thq noig.( where-local soverning bodies wiil bept*E{ ot, an at-lar[e basis, anderecrao on an at-rarse hqsr5,,6nfl.peop.ld wilr vote_for ."fraiai;i-uit'"on theirirdi'idual merit and-not on the corbr ,iiii,"#'"1i" Ilnfnrrrrnoror,, .^ L^-.^*g:1*, t*'.8 tc M c M i t i n ; . E" ;;;l:i;' i; ; i ii," n 
". 
*slin IJn^fortunately, we ta"" 

"oi-yei
H:l?, Bf""?:,:r_ *^ *f_ti:" ^* 

yS.f; "i.i,u,e"*q,rp; v. tr ni ted sra res, the,rf l.j,*",*tj"l[:,"p_,1^,:,;;ndt##Ht"-fr"Jiff#"Y";ff :;""yf ,:ii
fi?i{ii4!:Slr:f rifi t".R',Hrrili[-S*s:f; i j,tri#LiJ#rT:*1llthroughout the 

-state 
"r. 

g1Ty^,ryf _I,i;: i;l,ir Jri"ji*Jlfr ffi 
,ti"jff 

"f TI#:::'yr:'",_'*11J:.H "lH;-*:X,#*:;{g, +sy il,.efsi;,i.th".,;#;olod.r.,,.,'Y'::t-t#1ti.I:'H"lIfr ,,'o"nec5f, 
iinuesL'i"iilfi ;g:rigi;,i';h""fr#;"lJlf;::

ehnnm in rho o++i*,..r_ ^]! SpF.flom.lg?t through rSEOiht;i-n-r-f;jamentalA- comparison of 
"t*iio" 'dprt .-ii;;j,iir ?ri.i.if,'l$93',i'J:"rffifri#J;,"'.

H"Tiit**'"t*:i:Ltl*::"i-Xg':":.":l*r,ri'"Mr.:'i:;o:,ii,i"*i'#5'byD.
chan ge in the attit udes ;; j ;;;;ui,i,;il # !i yjlff:ii t.i!.]; pi::i,lff ji,HtT;,#l
*,,*nlr;**::1ff^"^-tl,:r, E"t"r.ir"tilll,'il d.eny bracks participation in the

,":i*:HJ*ffi,1Ttsffii,?"ii8o",t,T#igrPraff R€port, porice,'community Rerations in
,. 

., Anrough the statistics presented in plaintiffs, testdisputed by defendants (the
ef tr"p",qo**;*,'iil;ilf;1#'a###rffil'ii-:iir-&1",J.}i"fr.:ff :ff lf 

"tI"#:ffi?"T;::'i"fl B,i}:"|'aflqr ;,1*::l':rq**:+--tilF,'sii;'e i"&r1'','ff -?r,'d praintiffs

;xi"*ilrr:tri*,H*dil+:i*,tr,##ff*t##r+#*uT;qffi
,irY."'* s'o'es v srak of Mi-*,is*ippi Laurel Mun. Sep. *h@r Dbt.), 567 F.u rz76 (fttrt Qir.

,;';#f,*jf5l.?#"Otn" Denning, Director, Offrce of Revenue Sharing, to Mayor William L.

: q9! I4 t21e. tur. N. 18 (srh Crr. t98t:.

mi:ll*ffi:'ff ,L3,,iiTTr,S]."X"S"gL;:,ro;:i*f*"##",i9fi *ff #t

,.-
542

majority vote and full slate voting discriminate against black voters while white
voters are unfairly advantaged.

Racial bloc votiirg is not t'he same political behavior as, for example,.members of a
political partl.tending to vote for thb party candidate. The severe racial bloc voting
bi"crss.d heie is the"result from the history of state-enforced segregation common
to the south-the "rigid patterns of segregation by law (which) affected nearly every
facet of life."" The PeteAburg Court noted that" (a)lthough state-imposed segrega'
tion ha-. abated. its long continuance in the past caused a dramatic polarization of
the races in Petersburg-with respect to votingand this result has not been obliterat-
ed."*

An analysis of 1980 elections in Mississippi shows that race continues to be the
most impoitant single determinant in votin!-behavior. When compared with studies
of 19?1 dhrough 19?=? election returns, the findings remain consistent. rffhen a black
candidate ruis for offrce or when a "black issue", e.g., singlemember or ward
representation vs. at-large voting, is the subject of a referendum, race is the most
significant factor in the election results.t'

A. February' 22, l?77-Referendum to change to ward ooting and rnayor+ourwil
On February' 22, 1977, voters in Jackson, Mississippi participated in a referen-

dum-the issui was whether to change from a commission form of government with
at-larse votins under whicb black citizens have never been elected to a mayor'
council struct-ure with ward voting under which it was likely that three blacks
would be elected to the city council. Blacks comprise approximately 40 percent of
the population. ln that referendum, 72.4 percent of the white votert voted to retain
the iommission form of government, whilb 97.9 percent of black voters voted for the
mayor+ouncil form.

io argue that the commission form was preferred by white voters for-some issue
related ieason-"good government" results from the commission form-leaves unel-
plained that procomm-ission arguments wehe convincing only to whites and not to
Llacks. It is ajso erroneous to aJsume that some other factor, such as income, is the
cause of racial bloc voting. First, it has never been shown that income or any other
factor correlates as highi-y as race with an election outcome. Second, if income, or
aome other factor corr6lales as highly a.6 race with an election outcome, that factor
would be so closely linked with race ds to be a "racial characteristic"'

The implication from the high degree of racial polarization that race itself was
tbe reason why whites voted one way and blacks the other way' is substaltiated. by
the results of-a random sample poll conducted by an expert in scientific poiling'
which shows that 61 percent 6f whites who voted 

'to 
retain the commission form of

government gave at lCast one racial reason for their vote, and 44 percent gave two
or more racial reasons for their vote.ts

B. h.lculating racially polarized uoting
There are three main ways to analyze elections to ascertain whether racially

polarized voting has occurred' the correlation coeffrcient, overla-pp-ing perc€ntages,"
ind ecological iegression.- All three were used by Dr. James W. Loewen in analyz'
ins the referendum vote.

The correlation coefficient, r, is the most commonl-v used and accepted siatistic to
measure the relationship between two variables. li can vary in size- from 0 (no

relationship at all betwean the independentvariable, race of vot€r) to 1.0 ia perfect
relationshii, so that if we kno*' the racial composition of a p-rec.inct, its voling
pattern is iredicrable $.ith no error whatsoever). eorrelation coeffrcients of r:.5 tn
r: .7 are cirstomaril-r- considered statistically significant. A related statistic, ,{ tells
the proportion of the variance or variation on th-e deper,dent variable (outrome) that

P''l

Ja1n* W l.oewen ; ; "furi;;"",,lly! I rrewen a.6 a "lurlous determination,l
!?1,^tl11t :f*- * The exrre-me significance oi rIx''Lrcar svsr€m."' 'I'he extreme significance of race i"r"ur"s ah;f;i.;;iir;; such asat'large elections and raciaily g""o6;J;.;'iirt.i"t" and requirements such as

""crt1 0f Petersburg. virginiav. unitcd st,,tzs.35A F. Supp. 1021. 1025 (D.D.C. i9?2), affd a10

U.S. 962. (1973r.
*354 F. Supp. at 1025
.,345 F. Supp. at 1025
eSee op.4()-41.

at 1025

!e Over
that are
;f;;,d iro*ro"".-iirl"'.."umption that ill blaciL" who vol.ed did so for the whitc candidate and

uSee pp.4(l-41.
", Oveilaopinc Dercentages analysis can be done only with individua) units such as precincts
at are ove'ruf,elmingl1- ihir. The analysis begin6 wiih I calculation of the maximum mount
racial crossover-thle'as-sumption that ill bladLs who vol,ed did so for the whitc candidate and

;t;a;x t;;G f- tt* ut.c[ dnaiart" came from white, then the minimum amount of white
blo. *iotrne rhat musl have taken place is computed. ln the referendum. the commission form of
tJ"ernmeit substirutcs for "white'candidate"; the mayorcouncil form ofgovernment 6ubstitut€6
for "black candidate'.

- Ecol"crcal rc5rression analysis provide an adual percentage eslim.at€ of whitc b)oc voting
aed on'an ent:ire dietricr iust 

-as 
overlapping peicentager- analysis prolide6 an. .acculgFba""d-;;'; "oti." di^t"ict just'as overlapping peicentager- analysis provide an. sccurat4

--"r"u." of il"-rotlns bet"*ror of whjres rn'bne piecinct. rological rqiession combina th.is

behavror over all prec-inets. yieldin3 en ovcnll calculation.



C Qaot a.\ Bto. Vol5 , e,^su 
t*

Lo"r1e,"i Cnrl c^+ S-q3

543

Gassociatedwiththeindepen.dentvariable{racet.Thatis,ifr=.?,thenr,=49.
meaning,nr., 

:;.".";'"*fi.ii..1S p".c"ni-oiutt the variance in election returns It is

uncommon ,o. "-.i"gl"'"tti.Ul" 
i" 

"tpiuin 
that much of the outcome variation in

4t,it;";H;3',f"rl?l'*"0r., the correlation coefficie.nr. r, between percent $hite

in the resiste#',.;ffi ;!' r;i;;,i ;i ;;#';;i l;;'th" .;mmission iorm, was .e2

Ttris is extremliy niiir-ttJlitai""t". .u.iui polarization in the election Only about

16 percenr ", 
ii'" ;;l;il; i"';"1-"ff"f--oi-h6i rariaules to attempt to explain The

racial corretati# r #'riiii,]* itro.t,-it"1 race is the most important factor in the

"rff;'"":q'"'rllio;lg, f i?::ff"T r?:i]ilin g iilr"Ji3;P-ili::"H:f,TiT ,"i:ii$!
shite bloc vot

of the white .:;'i5.. ;;hd';'i"Li, tfr" 
""rn--Gidn 

form of government ln Precinct

g;, in $.hich ":rr"G "ilgas 
p"[i,iriir tr,"'i"giiG..a rot"rs]the.analvsis shows that

8u.1 percent.i:^';;;;"pt;j6; oi'*iilt"" at a minimum who voted to retain the

commrsslon roim. ThL cilculated maximum is 93 5- percent

The result of the overlappi.rg pe.cet,tagei anal-vsis is-for ov.er*'helmingly white

and overwhel."mi;l],- bi;;k' pr"ecincts"i;--.to*ri jn Table. I TheY shou that

whites in th"#';;'1'Jir;i;;;dei;;';[" commissionJo'-T !.]j 3P" 65 to ?0 percent'

;i;;i;ii;.L;;fi lil'ih" n"" r9t1n of.government !v about 20 to 1'

The ecologi'c"J;#";;l;;;"riirir oi'tt. entire ciiy.vote shows that ?2'l percent

of the whtes i;r,"'r"t"d-li*i'tii"i. titii,i to retainihe commission form with at'

ia.i" electioo. ihe res"lt of this analysis is shown in Table 3'

C. June 198T-Demuratic primari'es' fourth congressional district

FourcandidatessoughttheDemocraticnominationforl|rgU.S.HouseofRepre.
,"nt"ii,,". ir ifi;i'#l';^C"b";il'r,J-Dli;ci-Th.* candidates, Cas,: 

il:",1 tti
Singletary, ,;';h,b; o"" *iaia"t"- Statc Senator Hlnry J Ki

correlation coefficients and ro for 1!re-IJo 
-.onGtt 

-O"-ocratic primary.' and pri'

."ry ..noff1"";;';;;";.tk in Table. i in-ir'" ptitary' .r : 9i' ln the runoff'

| = .s1. L'r,"iii! ;/;;.,#a; $s.i.;;;r inarcate rdcrally.irclanzed votins By better

than ten t" o.i",'*i,lLi'"itira--iiiiit" and blacks voted black Even gteater polarva-

iii-'*iil"a ihe'runoff which Senator Kirksev lost'
Table ? rh;;.' iil;';il-p-po*i."'tJ**-tiito- uoting for Singletarv and blacks

I oi Kirkse5 * *"ti' i* i"" "ii d't' ri"tff i"U"m.tr1 ffi Iffi i T"'H"*I'f"ii"tf 3ior Sinstetatvl while 99'3 percent of th
D€rcent "r,ri" 

I.'iiil.";;t"?'f;'bi;ciil;' ;;d ee.e percent of ihe blacks voted for

kirksev,

D. Election' during 1971. ?5

Table 8 shorr,s the resu]ts of analyses of elections during-19?i-75 in Mississippi

ranging r.o# ir,"'igiifitrI"tffid "r*tio"' Et4t€ g:-nal's Democratic primary in

southwest Mississippi in 1975, ."rnty iXo-irfu"l sheriff e)ection in east Mississippi'

ci.cuil clert'"c'##sI',il ;;;;;;i ilik,*ip-pl-i" tszs, to Delta c.ountv elections-

sunflower and Bolviar. The analyses.ffiJl',rr,"t i" "it it"* "t""tions. 
r = .9+. The

minimum p€rcentage of whites ,otirg'iof ii" ;iri;;"diJ"E ranses from a lo* of

94.2 to 9trr. The table shos's severe .l""ir]'ufr"'i,"tlru-if,-"gt,out-Mississippi u'ith

no significant change over the years'

Bnaa Sb.e-truan C o1c+r,r5rr. Urvi) ,-* <'14

If race were not a factoi in elections, simple probability theory
predicts that the proportion of h]acks elected to countywide. posi-
tions would not be- 6ignificantly different from their on^e-third -pre
portion of the populaiion. suctr is not the case. of the 239 members
bftne county ioverning bodies in the 54 counties,o4ly 5.[2 percent]
are black. In 5nly ? ofthe 54 [13 percent] has 4ny black served in
this capacity sinle the passage of- the- Voting Rights Act of 1965.

In 39 couirties in whi6h the chair of the school board is elected,
only four blacks [10 percent] have been elected to this 

-p^ost.
dlacks serue on th'e electi6ns commission in only 6 [12 percent] of

the 49 counties for which we have information.
Of the 4? counties for which we have information, only I [2

percent] reports the electiorr of a black judge to superior court since
lhe pasiage of the Voting Rights Act.

In only" 9 [18 percent] oI the 51 counties for which we have
information have-blacks-been elected to any count)'v/ide position
since the passage of the Voting Rights Act.

Finallv. in n-one of the 4? iounties for which we have informa-
tion, is the highest police official [usually the sheriffl black.

P,T

.\"sepk Fred-o.rn lc Su,r*tn- a* S€D
--'fr" 

in"." given -promises that theee problems would- be looked
into. Some afpointinents were made, buf the central p-rob-l-e1n as we
Derceive it was that we did not have any black elected officials. By
ig?2, one black had run for county commission, and in- 1976 an-
other black and I ran for the school board. Neither of us were
successful because we just could not win under the atJarge election
system. Racially polarized voting prevented a black from ever get-
ting enough votes to win anY seat.

t"n tgZgiwe sought legal issistance, and our attorneys discovered
that the county c5mmiJsion and school board had both changed to
the at-large syitem in the late 1960's without submitting the.legis-
lation to'i,he'Attorney General for preclearance under section 5.

Actually, no legislatioh had been submitted from the county since
the Voting Rights Act had been passed.



@) Rc"r'^I. 0\r. Vol.,n1, c-^s'r 'I
Ln^rr;Vu\ i n fu "bo*r.Ir[ ( Acuu) a-] sl I

Third, the heritage of separate but equal was far more debilitat-
irg than perh_aps pgople thought it would be. Certainly there was
u understanding of how severe the burdens of race were, but few
ould have anticipated the extent to which blacks have been devas-
trted all across the South by racial bloc-voting. It is a chronic
problem everl'where you look. Black voter registration remains
disproportionately lou'. Blacks are simply inexpeiienced in the elec-
tive process, and the blacli communiti itill suffers a distinct socio
con6mic status which makes it difficirlt a"a .o-eti--eiimpossible
to establish coalitions with majorit-v- white voters.

The Rot,ary Club is still segregated. Churches by and large are
lill racially segregated. That is iherc voting coaliiions are f6rmed
br the. most part. It has been our experienci that there are really
Po .stgh. thing_s as_ issue campaigns in many Southern cities ani
,nnedrctrons. People run on a very abstract platform of good gov-
arnment.
. Sotr" elected officials concede that they run on their personai-
hies. People vote based on the contacts they have buliiup'o,er the
ytars In jurisdictions in the south that mLans contaos ihat have
ben segregated. As a result, blacks have found it extremelv diffi-qlt to form coalitions *-ith whites and get elected. especiilly in
thae jurisdictions where blacks are in a m"inority

tJ q\2.q3
Yet in 19EI the e.rrt ot Appeals for the Fifth circuit said thatthe vestiges of racism encompass tt e t"1.1iij;- "i^If; in BurkeLrcunty. As an attorney I have never read linguage quite that

strong.
Outside of Georgia, if,I mi^ght give another example, on April ?,

1981, a referendum ."lt,rg .f6r a"new. apportio,me'ni'toi ii,! "iticouncil of columbia. s.c., incorporatind'siniie-m;;b"; distri-cti,
593

# #iloJ*"Xereated 
bv a' raciill" 

l:J:,::9 Ih-ife voting majorit.y.

ffi%, Ifl J :: ii:i ",mn:,a ;l;{$ :: r,ji d*,i*nx"r;
r,l#f*ffi T'ffi'f* i*i *,,H,r.,. t iitil#fli'X{

ln one of the 
-l::sBaper 

clips f ,"u.1,1 white council member was
fffJ*r*r#','*g,he 

oppoled alst.ict, uotirs-t."uJi it wourd-lm af i4 2b; i e?i:kdh:'^Hff"rf":et elected't" ir,I Titv .ou n"irl
lotervene in our

ro:J,,,s:Iiih,*",*lffiffiThere Ls arso a phenomer;;;ii;i_qr"u"i;;;iri;i 
takes prace inrbe South, that.il_-uch _o.J*airE"irr, q ;.;;;; 

.;tii,i", 
whites

$5i;fl,i:,{f"",.,4i$*:r^l;l-i*-l,it'iiq:Hjitrti#

f *ir{i$;ii$:r,ii,*lruejs*f [,t:l:,,l"'..x
r.r;l'.,qs,i,i",tlXr'?il1*fj"iy".:Ir..,J;; j,;f assistant

Hfilil+trr#tffi,*$'ii{trtTi:'dffithe election and the ".ralaif ifrr,ii.r,got outof the race so thatS:,'if:'lo:il3i1it':9]'ri 'ii#'fi"La bv a prurarity oi vores in*["i; tr[ij1,",i1il1 tr#f :j"t.j,t,,l,x ,"5;I[:ff#i#a i, iri"

0*n ^-+ fi'l 
. -'

P,1

Thrrd, the heritege of sep.rate-but-cqusl yas far more debili_
tatin8 than had been supposed--indeed if that were possible. Black
Ctrdidates for office yere devastated by racial bloc voting by whites;
Clronrcally low black voter registration; sheer inexperience in the
,clitical process; and, a depressed, distinctive socio-econonic
ttatus yhich nade it difficult, if not inpossiblc, to forn political
co.litions with whites or perticipatc cffcctivcly in the electoratr.



(,/) \4acta\ B\oc Voli"1 , a* lL

€d, 0vzuun I NtYktP) a] 'l4L-.- Private clubs and churches are basicallyegregated., so it is hard
t" ".ii[iit 

poiiticat coalition with whites. The exclusive white club

;;; ;ht;iu'ctio, in Camilla. The all-white Rot-arv Club. runs the
!f"iti""-i" ietta-, Ga. An all-white club does the same in Macon,

the third largest Precinct'
r -'i;';ight'be 6xpected, racial. bloc voting- is the. norm in my
' .or"ty.-ii".i"g -y St"t" .ace a deputy sheriff carried whites to the

-r.Ifi."Urt he "nev6r-carried one biacli. My v''ife voted, and as she

a;;;;kine ter Lallot she overheard the-deputy instruct the voter

ii',*tt,"-lii6i"i"i u*tt not to vote for Edward Bro'*'n, "He is a

nigger."

*O;;-;i 
iiie things I find most discouraging-is the chronic evi'

&nce of racial bloc voting. That means to me that white folks, not
ilst elected officials u'ho might have some vested interest in retain.
'ing the present s-vstem. but the general electorat,e has deep- resist'
1o"." r,o Llacks ho)ding off,rce. That is quite discouraging. aside from
the individual attitudes one encounters.

Mr. Eou'lnps. Is this process that the cities and counties and
Stales have to go through in complying with section 5 a terrible
burden financialll'and emotionally on them?- -Ur. 

McDoNlr-o. It is not a financial burden, Mr' Chairman And
I have been in many of these counties. Quite candidll" I don't \+ant
io *iir"pr"sent $'hit I hear, people don't object to the ad.ministra.
tive or financial burden. It simply costs a stamp and-sending soms.

iirlrg 
"p 

to Washington. They in-ay have to write a followup letter,
but ihat is not verY imPortant.- B;ilirtreal obj6ction is the philosophical one. People.think it is
demeaning to goio washingtoir to gel,.I a-m gar3PhlTing what I
h;;;, t" gEt peimission from- somebody in the Federal bureaucracy
lo .-ti."gE th'eir election laws. That is why they don't like it, based

on pirlolophical grounds. But it is not quite honestly, in my experi-
enc-e, an administrative burden.-- At6;";t General Daniel Mcl,eod, frop my native 9q*. of South
Caiolina, iaid recently at an ABA meeting I attended that.go*pJl.
ing u'ith section 5 was not an admlnrstratlve burden. A pnllosopnr-

caT burden, spiritual burden, but not administrative'
I brousht some documents with me which I would like very.--u.h 

to"submit for the record. I said earlier that I thought there
would be an erosion in black voter participation.- I think that is

true iecause of bloc votins. Whites doh't want blacks to hold office.

ii"i tt 
"i"- 

i" also--T6i1e*xa-mple, a provision on the _registration form
i" S"rit Carolini which r6quires- a literacy test. lt is not enforced
because it was.u.p""J"a-[y] tt"-Voti,g Rights A_ct i1.1965. But if
vou walk into a voier registiation office in South Carolina they w'ill
h* vo, thir forrn, whi"ch I would like to submit for the record
irfri.ti pio.ta"", "t ri'itl demonstrate to the registralion board that I

"r"i"ia and write a section of the constitution of south carolina."--The 
st"te of Georgia still contains in its constitution the-old good

character or undersianding te6t. Of cour€e, it is not applied because

ii n-. U""" suspg_1d9d, bult .I would. lik.e. to attach q clPY of. that'

)oo1r,^ A,a^J a- [ (ur tn er) a,] 1t1, u
lheae dltcrld.artorT alcctorel &vlcea operlt. to

systeh.ticelly nluinlze the lryect of nl.norlty \rotlut rtreugth
especially in .chc con-€-exFof :rclally polarlzed votiug.

Raclally polarized \rotiag frustratea the electoral cholce

cryreesed by Gtri.cano co@lnities ln Texae. Votlng along etl-{c
or racial llnes has a tendeucy !o ulnlmlze tbe {.ryact of Chlcrno

voting etrength vhen they ele a Du@erical votlag B{Eorlty rlthaa
e glven polltlcal subdivision, Such an effect la partlcularly

cwident in che recent elecgioas for the Corpus Christi CLty

corncil elect.ions. Ihe City Council consi8ts 6; s --yor md

rlr courcil renbers eleeted every feo year8. Ttre Clty Couacll

uubers run by place. The follorring table rDeaaures the degree

of racially polarlzed votLng ewident ln these clty counctl ..

efections The nr:abers next to the candidate are called R

factors fhese R

P,to

'7 48

Lo.r1h\rn fUolo"Aa
&Ylq 3

(t+
q,tt

o
-:o.JE

oqrd
d
7q

dq,
o
trr,..{ 0l

!q{
O"{
Eao
@do,{
OUt

!oo
#d
.c
F{ q)

L.6
roo.€
A 6(J

u u.cq, 6l
>l >Jo1rl lCloal al/ul irlu61 6lA

IHcl trlq,ol ola...11./li
ol olool ola

HI BIEol olol ol
\̂o(oo

oNl mle).dol <"rlc p
.il .i
d(J
rio
Ea0lA&

corahnuea[ .



)or.c1r,,n k-v*rLo- (U*U>EO J 1+1

trctorr rr. correlatlonE between the percent of Spauish_Suraaoed

tE,r6i yithln a votiag preclnct aDd the mrgln of votes 1D th€

,.rcfDcr rcccLved by a glven cendidate. A high poeittve R value

Dllcrgcr I ttroag correlatlon between tbc notes rccclved by a
;lltdetr end Spanlsb Surnaoe regLstration. A lorr or Detatlve
r dtr lDdicates a neak correration between the 'otcs ceet for
f y'ro ceodldate and Spanieh Surrrg,!,e reglstrettoB. Etgh positlv€
I tecrorr lndlcate strong support in the Elspanlc cormr:nlty while
L ot oega.ive factors indicate little support iD the lrispanic
ail.Blry end etrong Bupporr ln cbe Anglo comr:n *y!/ I,hese

1981 Regular Election
Place 2

Conzalez + .8I9
*D:ryhy - .8I9

{odlcates rrlnner

prulEs lndicate that in those places where Chlcanos ran for
office, they :eceived overr.rhelmiog support froc the Chiceno
cocounity while the Anglo candidate received very little Bupport.

F.t,t{) Rac,o-\ Bta- Valr5r ci,^ 
\+

?1ecc 1

lcleffcr - .253

lrD. + .924

Orllcy - .889

hltncy -.451

9t7

P1ace 6

Ctrapa + .635

Kennedy - .809

Bolden -.008
noosrh - .450

Cavazos + .838

34/ These corre]lgions were pro,rided by Dr. Fred Cervanr€s,lo1lci6al Science Deperrocnr, Corpiri Arii.tf Srrre lrniversity.

gts

In th€ rrmoff for placee I aod G the patterna becaoe aven lprepronounced.

place I
Lrara + .950

*Gullcy _ .950
* ladlcates rrtn,rs3

Place 5

tKennedy - .g4O

Cavazoc + .940

Aa e result of the et_large by_place electlon ttructurc end ecvercpatterns 0f ractralry polarr.zed \roting r11 0f the .tr.carro candidatealost ln the election. Corpus Chrleti has e populetLon of 23I,915peraons of ryhich L6.67. or l.g,ITS are Hispanlcs, ,et does not harneny Chicano repreaentation on Ehe clty cor.rncil. I9g0 Cenaus .t 24.ltis r.rnderrepreaentatlon is particularly egreglous rincc CorpusGhrlsti conEains the largeeE concentration of Eiepantcs Ln e, nqjcSouth feras city.
Racially polerized \roting is found in eualler politlcalrubdi'yisions as well. Medina comty has a populetion of 23,L64of ryhlch 43.42 or LO,O42 are of Spanish

22. rhere are no Hispanics on rhe .",-J:::"rrffi. Lthe Eoado Clty Cormcil. Elections to the Ctty Courcll are csn_ducted on an at_Ierge basLe. Election returna for cLty councllraces shorn a very high correlstion betlreen the perccatage ofSpanish Surnamed voters end Ehe pelcent of votes cast forChj.cano candidates, thereby Buggesting strong patEerns ofracially polarized voting.

Co,rh,.oe?)...



949

Spanish Surname
Voters

L6.337

43.87L

39.907-

6)

7'

?asl- fric'\ $*cl o[ }.'\u^til^+'\{' 
c.:\_?+ L"ehet+ , u'9

V.b^nilt| - \nl."rvgutu'n O*O
L+

Ctr) (ar,,al' Bloc Vol-rn 1, * S

) rr^r1u 6 ffa'i\o' 1 ccr* 
r*, o* q*1

'tLI l"'
DdJ 1, L979- tlrct r

rtL'J l"o
Dtl. prtrerns of racially polarized votlng arc alco DeDl-

Drcrd ln cor-rrty elections as rrel1 as for courty rerurBs

D ctbcr sEate elections. For exaryIe, ln tbe Jr:ne 5, L976

r-tf for cor:nty comissloner precinct 3, the Spanlsh-

1;,oE registracion rate for the comLasioner preclnct vas

a^.37,. The Chicano candidate received 45.57. of the vo!e. In

tb l||y, f980 Deoocratic Party Prirury for Aseoclate Justlce,

tt! Suprere Judicial District, Court of Appeala, the Chlcano

crndldate received ver-v little suPPo!t fron the predouiuantly

la3lo precincts. See Attachcnt No. 8. heee exaryles lhould

provtde aqle ewidence demnstrating tbe exietence of racially

polrrtzed voting patt€rns tn llcdcGl Auricrn co@unltieB.

\rq I

1l{1

1 IPolarizcd vor-ht: along elhnic Pattcrn6 '' \-Jr" it;it'tt )r'"'icin voLcrs voLe fol'

l;:l ii:;;"rut i::"^:;i3' ::i;i ollt "1""'.;i;;; i"-tr""it""! in Ehe citY of
Irckhar E '

Evidence before thiE Coul't on the exlstencc of raclally

!'olarrzed voting came in two for-ms' First' PerEons fanillar

Jith the electoral Process in the City of Lockhart and famil'i'rr

nith Ehe },ay people vole in Lockhart cestified about the exlst-

cnce of racial polarized voting' Seconrl' tuo exPert witnesses

Dr. Cherles Cotrell and Dr' Frederick CervanEes testified

ebout the exlsEence of raclallypolatizedvotLng based on their

enalysis of recent PoLitical races in the City of Lockhart'

}lexican.AgericanresidentsofthecicyofLockhart,yho

hrrd exPerlence in the political Process nr:re unanimous that

thclx experiences in the Politica1 area rev{raled the cxisteDcc

9f polarizcd bloc votlng rftereby }loiican AEle!ican votera votGd

for t{cxican Anerican candidaces and Anglo votera voted for

Anglo elndidacea' See d-epositlons- 1f: 
Garcla pp' 7-15' 38;

Scrreto PP 12, 1S, 19, -20, 27'28' testinony of Bernardo

Rrngcl T.R. p. 209. Testj$onv of members of the City of

Loclhart's Anglo Corounlry' r'ho t'ere taolliar i'ith the Pol-

Itic8l Plocess of Lockhart' also reveals inpressions that

rould tndicate and are consistent i'lth t'he existence of ra-

cially polarized voting See Depositions of: l{arle Burton

p. 65, Shufford Alexander p' 25 and' Buckley pp' 35-36'

The deta used by both Dr' CoErell and Dr' C':rvaDtes

consisted of election results for city council and u'ayoral

races fron 1973 to the PreseDt' fhe Plaintiff furuished'

for each such election' the number of Xexican l"merican votera

DarticlPatins. To determine the exisEcnce of racially pol-

arLzed voting the nrnber of votes trlqgived by the l'lexican

Votes Cast for
Chicano Candi&te

18.582 (Attrchcnt No. 5)

40.527 (AttlchDeDt No.

39.437, (AttechrDent No.

?, IL

Crrra\n.rrzl



(4 Ra"tq-l Bloc uslinl, a* t*

?d.* {rra\ Rria*, ,^^ ti 
^1. 

\rqz
1l12

L:lcrican calrdidates eas comParcd to thc nuo:ber of llexicatr

AmerLcan vote8. Ttris analyels was uscd by both llr' Cotrtll

and Dr. CervanLes' T'R' pp' 155' 254' The coneletently

cloge correlation between tLe nunbe of voEee received by

Hcxlcan AmerLcan candl'dateg and thc nuober of Herican ADerican

votets at each electlon lndlcated to both GxPerts the GxLst-

encc of raclally p '"artzed voting' T'R' Pp' 155' 254'

In fact, Dr. Cervantes revletred ttre data uged to deteroine the

exiotearce of raela1ly polartzed votlng in Ellkee County' GE=

'v. U.S., 450 F' Supp' 1171 (D'D'C" 1978) and concluded the

deta avaLlabl'c for Lockhart Eore strontly tndicated racirlly

polarized voting. T'R' p' 255' ftre recoril also revcale

lluican Amerlcan candidates have nerrer opposcd one another'

f.l. p. 209. lIoreover' rh!1e anglo candldates treve run urr-

opposed frm time to tlDe' even after rhe adoPtlon of thc

*ta"t, never has s Hexlcan AnerLcan candidate been unop-

pored for 8 clty office T'R' p' 209'

Taken aa e whole, the Court rnJat conclude frm-!ts:-f,actr'--

ln thc record the exiatence of racially polarlzed votlng ln

th. Ctty of lrckharE' fhls evidence ls even roore corupclling

riria one coneLders Plaintlff tgs not eose forratd rlth 
'Dy

data to refute the sxlstearce of racially polarlzed votLng'

T.R. PP. 22'24, DaBBIB'

Z. In the @ntcxt-of- raciallv qtl::i":9-Y?:1:g

ik"i::l;'a::.:T":T::Iff :$:"E[fl":;*"
EinorltY- vot'Lrs in Lckhart'

. The record of this cage reveals that geucrally a nurrbered

post provision tras the effect of targeting minorlty caudidates'

T.R. P. 96, 141, 149, & I5O' llithln tht contexE of raelally

polarized voting, a numbered Post systeo cauaes a draroatic

iocrease in turaout by anglo vorers to defeat the Elnority

candidaces'Anr,mberedpostsysEeEaleopermlcstheanglo
corum:nity to plrc' lrr rErongcrt cendidltc rgainst the Dinor-

1t{8

la, c.n(lidnEc to cnsure a hcad on head race. Dcf. InL.

lrhibtt No. 5-5d; T.R. p. 245. The numbered post provision

3hrr lraa ar: adverse ioPact on minority candjtlates.

The recr,rd rev&als that racial.Iy polarized voting exlsEB

|rr t ckh.'t. Horeover, Anglo turnout incrcaaes dran^tically

rien Herisrn Aoerican c.'.ndid:t-es run for office. Def . In!.,e

tshrbtt tlo. 5-5d. Finally, ttre numbered posE provision has

Doar uecd to target Hexican American candidates Ln Lockhart

rrd har reeulted in the atrongest anglo caadidates runiing

.trlnrr the mlnorlty candldates. T.R. p. 245, 247-248. ln

vlsrr of tH.e evidence, the conclusion !.s !,neecapable that the

nrnb*cd poet provlsion has an adverge lEpact on minority
rotlng r!rength. Since tbere is no steBed Juetlfication for
Gbr arobered post provJ.slon, Plaintiff hag failed to meet Lts

Durdcn that the a<lopllon .of the nurnber post provision does

tot diacrioinate on tshe basis ol race, color or ueobershLp in
en eppllcable lanl:'ug,r rlnority group

?.t3



?. 14

0l Qactal Bloc Vol''"1, c.o-,.'*

?auX $^rD/a!Lo Lr* SL,l€- A4) a* tr+8
' Without the Voting Rights Act. it is just going to be, insurmount'
able for us to go to cSurtlAnd let me till you, I gth,o the comments

;i ;i g;"d }r'ie"d Paul Ragsdale' Paul Ragsdale has done a tre
111"n,ioit joU in ti,e 

-f,eta 
of i"Jirt.i.ting. I elho the remarks of my

g*a-i.",ia Be..ra.dc,-i;;;tt". w" hrrE to have this quasi-judiciai
factor that we .r, a"["a on. wilbout g9ils through the-Egeat

"ip""r" oi go*g to ;;il. We havd to teil these people in Texas'

id,-i-fiu." iJaiiE i-i""ii"", y".,.*.-have been denied-access to the
- ir,titi.ul process, ";;-ili; d 

-t"It th"- that there are manl lan-

hiug" 
-o"lrilri.-iufrur.f 'Urrri"*, 

*.- t un. ro remind these.;reople
iftritf,"il-ii, p"fi't r't["i "ii.t"d 

in 1966. We have to ttl] then
that i.here *".. ,"gl"g.;; Jli;"it in it. Srate We have m telj
iir"ln ir,L."'= 

-"- g.!zi'a;;p;riq, of income levels. !'e have io tell

ll:f, i|;i;,lg:,S,ffi we ha'e to terl

ll'r. Enwe.nDs. I think you gave us a very good statement' Mr-

Ioreno, an excellent stat€ment'
]j'r,j, ifri.rk thut nL.."- *.ry rn'hite people in Texas would vote

h a Mexican American?
Mr. MonsNo. No. No, sir.
ffi: E;il;;;t. So tr,Li;i what vou meant bv "polarized" voting-'

ili;. M;il";. w" ir""e a-polirized voting svitem^in Texas' I
tiiiii ii fi".t. it " tr4**lcan American more because of our level of

trtll", U"cause of our economic situation. l,et's facg it; we never

fa *"aia"rcs to note ?o.. El Paso is 400 years old'. We've had two

Iexican-Amerlcan ma)'ors. We have had in the house ot repre
;;;*;;-i;-ii',e-regisi;ture five people gerve since El Paso became

;;;;;'" in; ;fih;" rople are'sen-ing right nou';,three-Mexi-
Crn Americans are r"rri"i ri'gf,r no" . One u'a-i defeated because he

Uea-to aUrriish the p.it't -, So;-ou have an indication of s'hat
hnd of obstacies we have rn Texas.
-Mr. ir*-i*o. Whar abour the Mexican-American peopie in
f511[; *r"f d- tfr"l tot" ioi a *-hite candidate rather than a Mexi-
..o.A-";i;; ""iaia"t 

if the;- ihought the u'hitc candidate was a
bener candidate?

rbso

Mr. MonrNo. I think-I knoul I have, and I'm sure you koq,r
that other pgoplg havc. But agqil, the mere fact that we sqi
Gonzalez, a Garcia, a Eureste, a Moreno on the ballot, the averd
person that does not realize *'hat the person stands for and whi
ha_ve- you is going to punch the -Moreno, the- Eureste and so oq-I think that a great number of my Anglo friends-and some J
my best friends are Anglos-[aughter] vote against the More{
It's that simple.

Mr. Eo*'anns. You have expressed a certain amount of emotigl'
and have been candid about what your feelings are on this issug
that it effects you personally and internally. What u'ill be tb;
mental state of Hispanics in Texas if Congress doesn't extend tf,
Voting Rights Act?

Mr. MonrNo. Oh, my god. Street politics.

The test. I submit, is not how many black elected officials have
been elected because of or under the \/oting Rights Act, and irrdeed
there really have nol been manf in proportion to our number, but
rather hou manl' '*-hites have voted for those blacks who were
elected.

There ma1' be sorrre isolated examples some*'here where a large
number of whites have vot,ed fbr a black, but not in Birmingham
where Mayor ArrinEton is from; not in Evergreen where Mr
Fluker comes fiorn. anci certainh' the less than 2 percent u'hite
vote I received in 19?l in a disrrict over 4(t perlent r*'hite is
evidence of a pattern existent in the South

As long as raciall.v polarized voting exisrs. there will be a need
for a Voting Rights Act to protect against white politicians q'ho
wil] do all the.v can to insure thel'staf in office in areas with iarge
black populations.

(^d L* ler{ )

aI rrtll

IrrrcJnae) 6t*
tut ttoYl-



CI: Qo.{"J -3[r. Va{.^1 , .^' I
L&,rry pt u\-o^r f tJ ft*tP) filt) '-* lut{

The black population' based on the 1!R0 t."1-'li data for ('oneu'un

c-ount1', ['e'i# E'it" ti t percen" of rhe poPulaticx:

Excludins the Biack g"rt [o";ii*i' C""6tJi,r is one of the feu

couniies *Eich has a blick p;'p;I;;;;' oi 11'e1-lti'percent 
Des'r:re

o,r. nrrrr.,u"i;,^;;-L"; i""n' unabie to elec: anv biaci'.s tc count]'

ofi-tce because of raciai bloc' r'oiine
ln 1gg0. $,e had .trr"" uiu'.i.=tto run for countt office. Tu'o ol

.them u,ere irr runoffs. erra Jn"-iosr b\ a mzl'gln of apprortmatell

25(i votes in an at-iarge election
ln 19;i;"-i';t*fulic'x= r'o seeir countr office

a-+ lts l te

rurr sDr-'--' .'' 
"r.itr- ctnra meneser wlo had been in Evergreen

In itv case. a u'hite store manager
for less' than 2 ,"ti'l-'un tgainst i-re' O;; ;' the white 

'canciidates
even admirt"A ti,ii"ti=*r"#"".1"1 .rniing-ugainst a biacii candi'

;;;;;;t because he felt he could beat hirr''

The inferen." on'"'tun';*"j*B r'ii'i'i='that' the white candt'

d"iii^;'J:,;il;id;? iFQi'ii" bloc vote 
"o 

elect'hini '

a j.

of Ito?\

'#*'":';l*?##HtJ'-Tu?':?:"JJ*".:3'f ':!::J:
il$Iip. You are saving if thev did their job thel' wouldn'tfolks'

ected?

\\*rJ tr.kscl [SlatcV'al-1 a] tt*o

Ilo/tt"& f,e-r$'rork' a\- tlo?
rn that referendum, 84 percent of the w'hite voters voted to

_l}- If," 
"o*-ir=ion 

'form 
of goverrrrnent, w-hile 84 percent of the

[*l"l;]" li;"f"1,1?;,' Yil:'ffi :il' i'1"11;t' "d 
th e,e r"." n d, L.-

*i:*";: ji;}:'$ry'r:;:ti:nl:':ffi :iffi i,r'H,'3,fl 'li"ilo*l:

#li:il*S,til,:*':T,ili:#g'*;s","'"i""'i:i,?.i'%rl":##ll3x
t! i,i e3^'1"11'3' en t Possi ble

;m'xx'Jill}"l.',#'i:l'sffi :"il,rii!-#:i*lliE:'h
cast by " ;;;i;;i 

roi In"' If .orecinct one cast only one vote aod

;f, 
iii:{r{xn%tS#5Jg%{iii",i'":i='5,S;"'T"il'S,Bfr ffi

fin"s "tff 
go f'- the bottom to the top''

; 
j3;ll,T"lfr *'tf'r.in:**?li'?;T;-a;:i6:irgffi

In tfr" Staie of MississtPPt'
When;;;il^ii';i-t'h"t'vouwillseethat*'llP'tjusteinp!

aor,', noti'rI' i;tii;;; ;;tt"; what th e qual ifi cati ons'

#1T,"l#FJi:{,Hitltrt:?i",'};}H:iiJ.Eili}:;ffi*
ran as an indePendent --

,Tllt'i.n"m",,f'#"#$,:H'"ilT;lJ:*i"t':f lH";Hll
the issue and he talks very 

-iice, 
with the idea that if you don,t

;rr"s.i;'l'lluiii:rFHE[i?:Hiii:#:Hr?"r:rur","nt
the whites thair I did He go

o,ii,H:TTytlrr* is that racial btock voting in Mississippt it

there.andaslongasat-targe?iJii,"'-.'e'alldr*'edtobeheldin
municipalities' in "o"""'' ot'"*;;;;;;; bi'acks simplv don't have a

chance not only bec-ause "r 
t"Jititfot'yoti's' but th6 black people

simplyao,n,i.iii""ih".n"^.,Jiii^,'ii"ttitgIo^}".campaignsthat
are *,haiwe call in the Staie-itable campaigns; that is, to get the

word to utt of tn" voters. to turn out'

Additionally,theblack'of,ili.in|avethathistoricreluctance
to even ;;;;i'' **id"ii"g it a u'aste of time'

M^t\ a,l tr tt(
Because thev don'r ",*'",. 

n"lilT;I;I'i]** o" vote ror white candidatr
for public offiie On the ofher hand. it L< as rare as Mrssissippi snow ^in 

Marv to find
a significant u,hite vote for a black candidate no matter for what offic-e. Since tbc
gubErnatorial election of l9?1. records show that white volers -in. Jackson, for
Example, who vole for a black candidate a-verage.about 3 percent of the white vote.

Sinie white voters will not vote for blacii candidates regardless of their qualificr-
tion. platforrrr or rrcord. at large elections dirriminates a-g.alns.t blacks a-. effectivcly

- as disirict gerrl'mandered to ililutr the voting strength of blaci<s.

P.rf



Cr+) earr6l,l Blo<- rlalin3, c-o^ 
tt

tM"rt4^!. tso,r1iu"/k ,,* l-1{?

(1"c,L{,.^a- ChhJ{A/rS ,5 Qh fl,.* *r\e",5ri) I
' M= cni"r*r. 

-congr;.i1n"n, iidrpards' *'e did.1'L9,'-]., iuridictions

Lhe'{alT risi ;;d-i;' ?i.'i S".'ir.)' tr'ere w ere con t'i n u in g probl e rn s -of

racial bloc '*i;g'iii;o'ii' 
in -u'*' inirunces blacks mav vote lor

*bires. trhrtes siill. are. '"ttl"-tu'r'io' 
t;;;i;;;ilcks And this has

orevented manl' minorities in ;,,,"iii.iil.,s subject to preclearance

i';". ;;i;s elecied to office'

\.S.\-^-ter1 ?ot\tn1o.r ( t 
^^^,- kE+ A* 6e0", Cu'.tr'L O\c Dtu) a*+ lgty

Mr. Epwenos. Well, obriorrsly attitudes are gomg to change, and

- u *t oG ut-#iin!'i-iiilcr' *""r'op",A'HrfX lf* ffidt;
*fi*ilt"*f;::l .[" ff l"fr}.T"ffi lti"i' *r'iq &pi" "'r "ot

axtinTr':"x$t["$i3#"r*,l6lry+li'g:::=T'x'"fi
that black p""-pi" are often ,ot plii.oi;;F i"t"#tEd in v6ting for

whitp candidaies' So pretty *"]Jii?"iio*" to whoever has the

political Po*:;U;5ffiander';;";;;t ei"ct anvbodv thev

want'
Mr. PornxcsR' I lhink.that dilemma that you have iust defrned

#h#:*fx*i:$ffiffifjlditrH
ffi"f,:"n'## ffffi'::{'f,ii'*"*rq J""r *1,t1 6i". "'ti"e 

i"
a wav tnat railKiii"tr;itt€i;i i'riii 't-""aemocratic 

results'

I have heard no one in the .i'rrii aint" communitv' Iiterdly no

o*,' *gg",, j:i tr3#**hn H fl};|,?,i* U'$#voting, eve^n

tmsm"et-+*'fi#rffi >H*#*
democraticnatureofit'is+o'"Et"iultosteerawavfr-omitthan
other peopiffi;li;;;'t" thi' 'ffij;t-y:f*-X 

*itting to discuss'
"'il;. $i'"1", well' thae are Yery w*e woros'

?. ttl

(v+n

u\o1L t\c.Brilt- Cu9 st'r,t v{o(Y9\'5) "} 
\1k(

-\ As more minority citizens have been able to register and to v
hahw nnmmrrnitie. hr"e found more sophisticated but no less pmany communities have found more sophisti

"*rri 
o'r1'. to deny minority voting -strength'. The 

. 
most comr

discriminarorl. practice is to manipulate election districts so t
rirroiitv candid'ates can never *1n through racially motiyatedminority
districting, annexations and at-Iarge elections.

Wt "" .llai"a in light of the stilI-common practice of racial bl
tinc, tio.-" t.echni-oues denv the power of the vote to minovotinl. these rechni"ques denl' the power of the vote to minori

.ito"""= Thel' make it difficult for minority grogfq to elect cant

dates of an]' race who wili lespond-to- their-needs.' Minority vo

who can never elect a candidate of their choice because or rac

discrimination, Iack the full power of their franchise'

* rqES
'F'd"ricei musl f judged in light of the still commorr prac..ices ot poiarrzeo

-L. *'or,nS sote: intimidation and election abuse. The Atianra Crnsrjrurior, re-
Ir tnu: rarral blo< voting is common in the South. Fifieen.rears a{ter passage of
! l-rung Rrghts Acr. voler studies conducted in the South shou tnit uhi..es.
lrr rrthou: ext:eption, still vote exclusivell' for white candidates B.lacks. mean.
Il ttnc tt, r'ote hea*il1' for black candidates u'hen rhe1. are on the ballot-but
Itt. nor ir: the same solid blocs as whites.s
-frcrai bio( voting anc other forms of discrimination create the climate rn ohich
lEr.r-mo::valt<i re<iisllicting. a.nnexations and at-large electrons operare ro denr.

- po*'", o1 the.r'ote. \l:hen political leaders rnanipulare boundaries of ejecrjor:
Inct. so ih;': shites u-il) al!a1's :onstitute a rnajoriir oi ihe r.oters. rhe\ drrninisi.
I rmpacl ol minorrt.r' votes Tne.r make it irnpossible ior minoritr candi<iates ro be
rrd ani ior minoritv vo1€rs to select the repre*n',atr'es oi their choice Ther.
lje ir ea-sr for u'hite candidates to compietell- ignore mrnoritr r-oters. since thei
rd onl' *'hire votes ro win. Indeerj. theie practiies make ir difficu)r for minoriii
,rrf tr eject candidares ol an1 r&ce or natronaii:r u.hr u.ij. respcrnd tt, ther:
d. since uhjre candidares fear the loss of the ma3orin.*'hirt btol if rher operir
Irpofl mino:'it.\- ccncerns.



5, f .ar[,]r'o.A Baarricrs

),tSe )uc-Lsr-^ a+ t?g

F a-.
F , nrrq!glt,r^l:^ S::,,1,, i,h" poygfs that controt State and tocal| :##i;:tf "i#,1',1r': 

^ii..*i['i],,;,: Jff i?[, Ta,o*i]: n

ffi,r'm*Fr*mi$tffi' S,H,'"*ij"""#*!:; i,:t iq tr;:i;":".d','n:"m}*lii. ro,nd trip to register to vote? And, i rtoura-"aal y'ou trave toqptelpglueen 9 a.m. qld ? p.ry, o" *""ta"v.. sus' Jvu

Mr. charrman' I wourd also rike to_introiuce for the record a
=ries 

of articles that.appeared recentrt il;h;Ailil constitu-rbn. The articles, whict are entitled, ,-,-t,oti";;"'r'ftigrrt 
stitt

Denied," document that discrimination against blacks in the elec_Eral process is also widespread in rural C""G;;. 
vlEv.* .r

Mr' Enwanos. withouc objection they wiri be received for the
6le. (See pp. 279-301.) -

trrr. Oo[rc.{\ o.} 4t"l
Mr. Cornru. Wh;; i ;r;; t"rai-iny before this committee in

1975, I know that the members would not recall, but there were
thousands -of pages -of testimony, but we looked at the history, the
patterned history of racial discrimination reflected in court r6cords
and behavior practices of the State. I urged extension to 1982 then.
I cannot answer that question in terms of years. After having done
post-1975 research, we have such light jears to go in terms of
dealing with practices, electoral structures; indeed, only 2 weeks-
ago, intimidation in voting occurred in the State of Teias in the
McAllen City elections.

fla,nr* [fe^n1 (Srcs, lprss.Nmr]) nl ,{t.z-

Mississippi still. has gor-e-.dific-urty than many other states inregistering its citiz.ens.,In Mississippi it i" ";i.;tJ-[ry I-g* o.get a hunter's license than it is to iegister to vote. To register tovote, a citizen still ha,s- !o gg to the cou"nty cou*house 
"i ii,E'.ou.rr'seat or tg !h9.city hatl in the cities and [o*rs. rt 

"." iJ "" ar"l-i^irloor -registratio! an$ qrost of the state is rural. personi *lho a"etoo old or too ill or bedridden to.go to thl.ou.,ty:r;;i; ihe citvhall, simply cannot rggrster. fh;;; .." ,o provisions ," #girti'.them and we do not ,hive deputy r"giii.u.s * -.ry-siit", h"u"that 
. 
could go poor to dool 'a"d p.6ciss persons outside of thecoynty seat or the town or the city halls, whlre tt 

".1, 
iir".- -. ,

b 9e d)b.d'A c9?.r
oS *lrtc,r^-{a 6o*sllit*
a,d'c-Lr-S

[W, (lrr^[e a-l s5,
- Just as instructive about the legislative mentality in Mississippi is what it fails top* 4ll efforts to make the reg:istration process more accessible to the people have

been killed in the committee. Reflstration in Mississippi is limited to one location in
the county between the hours of 8:30 a.m.-S p.m. Monday through Friday. Postcard
reg'istration, door to door registration and even moving the registration book to the
voting precincls have. al.!. !een- rejected by the Mississippi l.egislature. AtJarge
elections are presen'ed religiousll- and the list goes on.

Joalur,n Ault- [ f.^tLDtF) a.+ 13tr

I. Yotlag Dlrcrtalnetloa la ?crer

fcxer hrr e urll docr.ocntcd hlrtory of votl.ng dtrcrtularttoa.
Itir dircrlulDrttsn rer cxtcnrlvrly docrcotcd La thc 1975 bcerlngr

to aec} .xtcnslotr of thc Vottlrg Rlghtr Act

cbrnger Ln polllag pltccr for thc Slooi:ogtm Indcpcnilcnt Scbool

D[strlct vhich had I dreoatlc lugrct oD votct prrtlclp.tlsn

rerultlog ln thG lors of Euo Chlcrno crndl&lcs f,y lcventceD
1.r I

votcr eplccc; 
- 

\roting, uechlnc feilurc ln tlnorlty voElDttzl t3l
grcclnctr; 

- 
poll taxcr; 

- 
ennurl votcr rcglstretloo

741
rcquireoentr; 

- 
&altl of errtrtenc. to Don-EDglt3h-

10/
to tb. Southpcat:

" ,l
I !{ o/r!
Eo cO,o ) cct E kon d O0A l. I !
lrh O 6.€ sq!9 d oloaFE : rE"ijs
OO o hHo(,(.) , .otlk.o nqEoaa l.l etOI6d()vi^Ood
AC ( m0^

a X q{!4
! o o.r aro o lr A 16
Ft. ! 0dh0 .. u'(rlv
9q o <u!
' 

o .o o{o-i 6 aE.c6eoa d p cir.o. I .ctt -o'd o oo h cl.E F d -oOaH o C6 dO A oooeo cxrgoo ha et cd,c, oH\, LF ol d do Tl!oool 9'.dxl
E{i cd , OoC !AO u e, > a \
Oo.fl .Ad€l
Oo xe I oFa dl3 .d9 n .doc.-e AO r ya6o o6,4 O ddQ .,
Xe. o{ - O.)t,{lU O{ gtlDo e
tso ax E <c aI u Or ()l O -p O
I ulla dFto() €tH! Ut {OC 

^ 
}+l, o - c6o4 ol \

A ac > 0 os oal ol.o X.d ! J cl dl
'l,lu €l ot ou N Xgrcor.dlHt ts, Hr F. !l! .t ld O !.1q a . -al <)tl. < Fo>.ul Hl\o \ \ \ \ooLlEl \
'18 ^l 'l 'l; 9l 

=1"x.: "l 
:l

d U .ds..la 5 .liEil
'.! rC CO, ollr < Doiral



F) Tr"rl,l-dr",j \owvri,rg, c^, 'l
Nr, Srmi\ta- [ UU urc-) of t"{3

--in 
Crockett Countv we have hJd-"b*nrce ballots marked rn

different colors. We have had countl- cierks color one set of absen'
te baiiots q'hite for the American-s. and we have had the other
lbsenr.ee ballot-. colored red for rhose Mexicans. I think it's a
Datter of pubiic record, offered through sworn tesrimonf iri hear-
ia86 held by the Southwest Voter Regrstration Education Project,
iu' conjunciion with other Hispanic -organizations, a matter of

L?-il

public record that these events did take place in Crockett Coqntr
where color coding was utilized to dgny the vote to Mexican Aneli
cans--not-in 1935, but in the late 19?0's. Fortunately, that^case wi
challenged in court and we now have two Mexican Americril
county commissioners in Crockett Count-y.

*\2.qs .,t

fl q$!-gr!.T#,h1fl ffi *'flli'}ii"Tff lltt*":',:;t"f*5t
Itrl-admrmstratron-rs recommending that preciearance be limited
f!*" change.s that have elicited" the ilori ;bt""tir;.-i;;'fi;

=T,T:lt -oI 
J ustice-regrpOrtionm.enr, _for exarnple, the changetE slngre-mernber to a_t-large distr,.ct elections, and tle annex-

1!!m issue But wha!_ ys have-in rnan.v parts or s"utt rexis and in
tr rt l exas Ls the -abuse of the absentee baliot. for erarnple, but
t-,:lryrf]cantly, we_have the abuse of polling piaces whdre'poli-
! places.are mo'ed from election to eieition ti 'confuse the Meii-
tPr American .voter, where we have polling places corrsoiiartea.
lp neople going to. the usuat poling'pla--aid ii-*ri'i"'.joJi.
S;#","rli''i'"I"?'frtf H""f"J,.?itf, :';"fri'J1ilr#J,},".,1,il"
r.l^1. actmrnlsiratron also recommends chanpng the formula for
*11i9, and it suggests that there be a bailour prousion and thatIGe crtres and counties rrith a clean record in iecent 5,""". -lgt rhllowed,to be,exempt rro* t-n" co";;"g;. 

e "r rvvv,r vreer!:

ln*11rt Bozcru)'n G* ts05'

Ir Likew'ise, we-have few blacks who are appointed to serve on
.lrious.citrnf.r9 county boards. Ever;* chance i get to say it, i teii
Pople that Pi^ekens countl' has no equal when it" comes t-o aenrins
rlack-s ease ol.,access Io registration and voting. Registration bar-_
riers. accessibilitl tc, the registration site. an aititua-e of the bo-ard
J_registrars remain our.biggest.prob-rem in pickens co"rty, Al,In 1978 we requested thaiour board of registrars .pp.-i ili"1i
rqdstrars. Thel- flatly refused.

Although the board told us on several occasions that they would
le willing.to hold voters registrations in the pi".in.tr, we have
been unable to gel them to implement this. Their u."ic 

"*c,rs" 
roi

ror h-aving an active vot,ers' outreach program is trrat trre il"slilirre has set certain. registration days ior ihem to roiro* 
""a'ir-,uttbe-v will -not ger-paid for the days which have already u."., a"rli.

nated b1'iarl for them to registeipeople.

One of the concerns we have you have touched on already. That
is the hours people must have in order to register to vote. Usually
thel' are from 9 in the morning to 4 o'clock in the afternoon.

You have alread.v taken notice of the fact that working folks
cannot vot.e and register at that particular time.

I won't dwell on that particular issue because I w'ant to take my
5 minutes and get through.

- One thing I would point out to the committee is there is a lot of
resistance to voter registration. Alabama passed a law to allow
voter registrars to appoint deputy registrars to assist in the process
of voter registering. Onl,v 12 counties would appoint deputy regis-
trars. even when the Governor of Alabama wrote some voter regis-
trars and encouraged them to appoint deputy registrars.

They ignored the Governor. That tells you pretty much how most
folks in Alabama still feel about registration. That is a fact.- Another point I would point out is that we still have numerous
polling places in white establishments, white stores, white
churches, and so forth. While I don't think that there ought to be
any, seldom, if ever, do you frnd a voter place in a black establish-
ment.

I want to move on as rapidly as I possibly can to speak to
another chilling effect on the casting of one's ballot. and that is the
involvement of blacks as polhng officials. . tt , l-

.,i,J''il,;"i;"*,,:i ::fri,!:'ii::: !f"ff, 
u!,TilIi, 

T":?l"L* ;jf; ) t\qrla port atrtc'ets
tokenism. I won't spend a lot of time on that.
. I will make that point and go on. If you want to raise that
question, you can..

Pz

)oe (Ved (narr fur,,;-D ffiie*c.-, ttacL nd^l crt (a,rt*l A lfr&
''. r szd

ar^h"aA ' .'



6) \d.h^r.rL )ta,urvc

1,\nqftlg \o-aa1ttx\ , @'+, c^-l- (fbf

Rarel-r' have w'e conducted a. voters' registration drive in Pickens

Countl' q'hich f,r. noi -"i with "o-" 
t"tLhnce from local officials'

One of the most ""Jl'i"i--ihinEs 
black voters face- in Pickens

c;;;y;1+i;tt"i"gii"t"i'i, rt"iar. pressure of the Iaw enforce

nent officers.

\de'r rofuvrr \D %tro.zut ) o* lS(tl 
l

I Mr. Hvor' I n'ant to say-that I have listened with great interest

- and.o,,."-t-',;nd^ i-;;llit'lt ""*' r-egitiation-!?ltt from 9 to 4 is

ort.ug"ooli'itT"Jt91 i"rt' atiG"La"io tt""p people who are work-

ing and *:iio^r'"'"*i;ifi;;ril' in tiat'eling from registering'

If that persists and exists, it'i. *"iE than wr-ong It it;i1-*::11
seem ro #';;"jl;ii'i'a;;i want to sa.v- too much. but tt rs more

th?l,"*-l;&*of 
deputl' registrars'.onlv 12 "oYl!:= 

have them' dem'

onstrates a cleai laih of "nti,uii..* 
for getting people registered,

obviousll" :s' if what Mr Reed says is true-and--Tt" 
location of voting Place

I don,t doubt that it is-is a r"iti"'irlilnidution of black people and

is also wrong'
S Ti;; Iegflif blaqks wor\rins as pouing gfficials is vrrong'

P.3

Clrrc,Ua- S@ll- l6'tX * llql
i -r ola_r of the-rural communities in the South-and I heard of a
: ;;ro, iqt q".Iong ago, that some friend.s reported, that a teach-
'7n rnvolved in a community wher_e-she had been working to get
'lj rug"tered. And as a result of her activities, she had beln
:F from her,position. We were told that this needed to be looked
,5 U.g8u* this particular person had been so intimidated that
E -ee not in a position to reach out to anyone. We did have

,* to check on it and found that this is still true. that
Flrtlo*-Peop^lq are harassed. the-v are fired from their posi-
L rs a result of just lrVinS to work in the community to get
rt registered to vote- Some people are so intimidated that thev
L'r euen tn. And so that somehow lve have got to create i
;rrtr rn which peoqle. are no longer afraid, that ihey know the_v
r rt{nst€r freell' and that thel' u'ill not be penalized for what is,l
tbl. the most basic right, the right to vote.

qo^ralAuuo thor "^"fsr.r' CV+ €cl.uAhcna P ro5,-4) 
^ 

+ \t+tt



(O +rfrlusr^&l Vtarrir"rs ,,r.,, *
Gearu\e"t rq- Jh-cr,.1ts,t (U+rr €drrL, ftttl a-* lgtli

CIO6ING STATBXENT

is alive and well in the Deep Souih as is sho*-n in a recent

- ^-+;rlJ "Rarnprs to rffJtit" Participation in Electoral Poli'

ilfJffi ?tg;1.3x"""r,':"'rr:x"'*"#?lliiJiiPifi ?:i'I;I:
'li cramPlesare'

andlor irregular limes for registratton;
locstions for regstratton;

nu-U.t of minoritl' Pol) warchers'
;ilb"r 6f sss.i5tf nt-r for iiliterates;

ffiililffigqlilt for non-English speaking citizens;

olia[&ntee batlots
;;;;"fi;-;'ith candidates b.r- election offrcials about requiremenls

or"ttriia' pu.ty or independent candidates;
irald"td po'II watrhers not being allowi,iiir,'J^"r-,,i beini allowed to challenge inelig:ible

Iffi';,,"H'o'""""Irt[i;"ff;1il;i;J;;;;;;tion' or to be prisent ai the

J rh" b"llot";
iilint"If ' 

"ir,": 
o-' jl::-e:11: 

^lI:1 :t*:':"S rapointive 
when it

frjliiifi lE;;;-ir;;*,".llr*.11'-1*l:.11"^-1::'":'i'.T"1
+H;'.n'ifr sx:i.?':":"'f ,i:"1^:11,.:,-*:.:9,",:1:;"otll:5n'numberortrrmandertng drawlnE el€Llon qulrrsr wurruarr

f ;;; ;' h i-.$ couid prolbabii' q yl,!)- I ill:'-iff 5,:{5f;'o,'lrrc* ''iiiil .rtt"t than a pluralit-r- is required trr
hurrements that I maJ(

wln an

=;ffi;-;;;; 
,s to make government 

^in 
the south

*r of democratic ideals and valuet. NeveDAgalr''

P.eA U*a3 J A\tr2-
*'ih?;;;;t 

or iucri rrwio3 er poll ro:rlcrr et t}gpolts rarelvapproximato c
"*t r. in the population. Horever, during thc l9t0 November elections, leas tfr
f Z Ut""i*."t of h&ty 150 poU worker"s.in Corecuh Qlrnty, Alabama, were ap,.i*
-r-Conryg3r *:"ty h1p r blqp.k nogulrtion 9f neerlr l.l, fl=:t ,*. r,,on 1 2 er.e rr

r.+