Proportional Representation Excerpts from Senate Hearings 1

    eP 3-5

?vo?orh' on qL R(4w-se'tu+<'+-'' o n

%^ Se*trlc

I would ask my colleaguea as well Fo[6erEE-bre8t€d in thit
debata to considei the implications of discarding the intent dEnd-
ard. Bv focusing upon the-reeults or the effects of an "llegpdly dia.
crimin-atory action rather than upon the motivation for such an
action, we are redefining t.l.e very conc€Pts of discrimination and
civil rights. By focusing primarily upon numbere and etatisticE
rather fhan upon evidenie'of aome-wrdngful purpoee, the "re6ulto"
test would transform the 15th anendrnent and the Voting Righte
Act from provisionE desigDed to insure equal acceae and equd op
portunity -in the electora,l pnooesE to provisions deaigpd to insurc
eoud outcome and eoual auccess.

buch an objective, the objective of racial balance on elected, rcp
reeentative b6dies, is inconsbt€nt with every vdue of our Constitu'
tion. Ag the Court stat€d in Mobilc in rejecting the propaition e:'
preas€d in the propaed change in a€ction 2, "Ihe riSht to equal
participation in-the electoral pnooegs does not protsct any 'political
iroup,' however defrned, from-electoral defeat."- In short, what the "rcsultE" taet would do is to eotabligh the gqn-
cept of "proportional represontation by race" as the atandard by
wliich corirts- evaluats elirctoral and vo[ing decisioDa, as well as de
cisions of municipal organization and etructurc, by communitieg
throwhout the Nation.

No.-it probably will not reault overnight in city councils, and
county c6mmipeions, and Stato legislaturea, and echml boards
acroe; the Nation reflecting racial-propoftious ia their jurisdic-
tions. That is too simplistic a notion. I

Rather, what the r're6ultE" eta.odard will do is to eatabtish th{
"DrcDortional r€presentation" atandard aa ona by which the Federl
aI Gbverrrment ind the courts assess the constitutional validity of
every municipal system, evety redistricting -plan,- every elctoral
aad voting riquiriment, and every alternation of thm $moq
plsD!, and requiremente.-Whether or not therae is ptoportionst rcp
runtation by race or whether or not proportionil rLprsenratioi
ir- promoted by thcee polici,ee will become 

-the legal frltar throuch i
which tbey are judged- - - 

I

At iD tho city of Mobile, never mind that there was no discrimi-l
natorl, purpce.behind theil eatablishment, and-never mind thatl

which tbsy ari judged.

natorl, purpco.
there wers l€g:itimato, entirely nonracial justifrcations for euch
polici,ea. As iD tlre city of Mobile, efforte wilt b€ made to dismantlepoticiee. A9 in ttre city
entirely. the stnrctures of selfgovernnent enacted by citizens
acrm the counru the country.

As tho Court obsorved in the Mobilc case, the dissenting opinion,
nich erpreaaed the case for the "re6ultE" teot. "woulE aiscardyhi+ erpreaaed ;ih" "?* for the "rq3ult6" -teot,fired principlee,of 6quol protcction in favor of a judicial inventive

ner.!,bat would go far toward making this court a superlegiela-
ture."

Tlre notion of "proportional repreoentation by race" is not a Epec-r t}at any Member of this Congreaa has puled out of a hat.ter t}at any Memb-r of this CongresE has iulted out of a hat.
Apart from the fact tbat the "rrsults" t€Et- can have no otherApart from
qbaning by itg very tems, the House report on their version of the
Voting RightE Act concede tlrot evidence of proportional repreEen-Voting.Rights Act coacedea t}rot -eviden& of proportional represen-vorr[g ftrSrrra AsE soncEoE frlaf evtoeucle oI proporcronal repreEen-
tatiron "would be hrghly relevant" in eatablishing a section 2 viota-
tion-



-Esl;rnony a$ Be.n;a.ma lloo bs

g . 252'5t

aibility of blacks having
ion to this mpulation, we
Can you erplatn-Dd-Ehe eubcomEitt€o what j"rr. UrbEon l8 tarkrng

about liere? t[ app€arE to me thst he is talking about proportional

Pr-p"*t'o',a) Rea 2.

ln

iB talkin

I ln addition, wo Eoo m!^y civil rishts leade:s.stating rather ex-
l"ticiUi tUt 'proportional iepree€ntation is their goal. Dr. \ilillie
IEi6n. prsile"t of the Souih Carolina NAACP, for e-?"fle, -has
l"-tataa-i$it i'Uole"" w€ seo a redistricting platr in South Carolina
Ithst has tle pcaibility of blacks leiug elect€d in pro;nrtiou to
their moulatiou. we will push hard for alternative plans."

In- ntdition" Uio Suprede Court tras been forthright in.its. charac-
todzEti;-of ihe-i't?E'ultE" or "effects" etandald as-one dedgngd to

"--oto;roportionat 
repreoentation by race. To refer to the Mobile

i;-;iih. t}b Court otienred, "The iheory of the diseenting opi'l-
io" 

"ii,eari 
to Ue tlat everv flitical group, or at leasJ every -euch

cnou6 ilat is in ths rninsrity, tras a Federal constitutional right to
Aect-csDdidstc in proportioi to its numbert . . the equd PIgh:
tid cluua of the l4tf, amendme1t dooE not require proportional
reor.gntstion aa aD inperative of politicd organization"'--hufd I conctudo; leime make in obsenadon about a ao'caUed
ai"ct"i-,er;rovisi,on in s*tion 2 that we will all be hesriDg a great
i&al Ebout-dudDg theae hearings. TtriE provision, it has been eu8-

lc.toA dirct8ins-tho idea tbat Iact of proportional regreaentation
l&ngtidut6 a asc.tion 2 or 15th amendment violation. That ts pure
I ana unsdultarat€d "Enok€8sreGn."l-R8th"r,;h"t tbs lEnguago following the "reeults" t€at. i.n section
2 ;!rt iti lhat- Ucf-of "p-noportional- repreeentation" "i.n. and of
iietf;ia not " "iotation. 

lt tf,en proceedE- to dqcribe m.ely a few
faaora thaq iD coqiunction with tb3 abeence of proportional repre
eentation" will consirmmata a violation.
-ftes-iasto6 include the eristence of at'large electoral ayetems,
radal-bloc voting, a history of discrimination, mqiority vota re
aui*-""t+ proE6itions on tngle+hot-voting, ""9.t 

uphred pcts'
Otbor factors tlat hsve been euggeat€d by the crvu ngn6 co6l1u-

\ iip or tU"iUave Uen used by tlie Jqstice Department_in -the paet
\156[rrrh dieparata racisl registration figurea' bbtory of llnglrEh{nfy
/ballots, the maldigtribution of aervices in racially deflrnable nergh-
b.rfiif;t"Si"r"d electoral terrDE, inpediments .to third narty
voting, numbers of minority r.egistration offrcials, "inconventent"
ilci"iiaiion hour!, reregistration requirements, reg'istration purS'
ffi;;G"aments, bt cet6'ra; et cet€ra' et cetera, ad infinitum'
-In--;ther *;rdi, siven t'he lack of proportional qepleagnt4aign'

"";of 1E;* i"il"i-*nich the Ho,ae-re$ort cdl. "objegtive" fac'
t"* ;i aiscii-ination will auffrc€ to comileta a Voting. Rights Act

"iii"iio"- 
Ci* ttriaUee"ce of proponional reprceentation, virtud'

ii-i"'i-l""isdiction in the countlry 
-will 

be vulnerable to a a4tion 2

;"-t ha""d, ttiJOu* ia Mobili rejectad a qirnilar atte'pt to dis.
;t8hl[; aia"se oi p"oportional re[ruentation !,1 caUing it "illu-
;7 ;.d -;-rfng 

"iap-,.gauzy 
sociologicsl considerations having

*nator lhrcn. You indicatc that you know of Do one in the civil
richts community thst tras advocated proPortional repreaentation.
Firmit me. if voir will. to quote from the Greenville, S.C. "NewE,"
of Decemb6r 15, 1981, dhe rdmarks of Ih. \ilillie Gibeon, whom I am
Eune you know.'He is-the preeident, I believe, of the South Carolina
NAA-CP. He indicatas hie oppcition to a redistricting plan inNaa-Cp. He indicatas his oppcition to a redistricting plan rn
South Carolina by etating, "U4l=q{€-E€e^? Plsn th"t |tqp the poe.

tloD to lhis populauon, we wurpEilrnara lor a n€

@ eubcdannittoe what Dr.

rupreaentation.



(roporhbna,l ?eP 3

Mr. Hooxs. I understand precisely what Dr. Gibeon ia talking
about. Itrae are not unusual etatements to be made. I think there
ie a big difrerence between proportional repreaentation and repre
aentation ia proportion to their population. It ainply meaos that-

we have 42 perceat,
meaa there must be

ffit'bat 
we would not be aatiEfied with a

Senator llercn. Is that uot a form of proportional repreenta-
tion?

Mr. Hoors. If you get to the nth degree, aDy nepresentation is
onswhat proportional. It is a part of our Constitution. It is not ad-

hered to generally, but the whole br"rinees-of redistricting was to
ffii""-i"'ttr"-co-t'cipt of 250,000 meqberq for a Congreaspenaon, 2
ao; ;";t State no iratter what eizs for the Senate. It wae set up
Iike that.--C."rrma"derinc 

ie something that has be€n in our language long
before bhcl fott iot involved. These are not new cgncept8.--ii 

yon-_ nnaeratdhd what- happena in South Carolina-that in tho
Sta-ti eonat€ even today theri is not a rinSle black e€rving,- unles
it ti""r"""a in the h;t 3 monthg. We are involved in a lawsuit
;til:Eauso *e do have blacks in the Stato houso of repr.6aenta-
tir&,'U"t n"t-a aingle black has been elected to ttre aonata becaueo
of the way they do it.--'ift"L-5r. C-ilg;" was dealing with was a precise situation wheru
*;;b;;-;id:;The"e are 30 ilembers of the ren4te; would you be-h.fit-6 

aettl'e for 1?" In that -kind of rhetorical statement to a
i,$it'". the angwer always ig, "C,ertainly not. \trIe- want somlthing
Ih;i;;;bGt;J; populatioir." Thai iaa faq different crv from a
irinl-"ti".t-pioportional repreeentation, which is the term that
is beinc ueed h-ere-over and over again.- fi;iil huir;n existe"ie of our l-ivee, if I were tq go to any St4te
."Jrii" ;p"A 6p"t the NAACP esal of .a-pproval gn g narticular
;1.g].. [rk;-G-cii.t in Utatr or a Republican in Cook County, I
ivouta probably enter that very suepicious about what was haPPen'
i;;. I ;ilid ;"""t to rtto*, "6es.ii deal with equity?" And equity
dd,s not mean exact mathematical proportione
-I 6;;tb;.bi6n. He is the preeideirt of the NAAcP.conference
f"; Sil;i, Gro[in". He tc"owe NAACP policv. $e wguJ{ not know'
ilLt-;i;trt" ii. ttr"t stat€.ment-"ttq.l have,heard ti- **?^itffiv dma- '
methematical.

nt, whgt
Dercentase would vou be eatisfi€d with?
' M;.-tI6oxE. S;ator, we have h8d to wreatle with that over and

"".. "c"in=nd 
new irccasions teach new dutiea. Time makce an'

ii"rit E*[-bft""ati. We have never been able to come up with any
precise defrnition.' Just like the standard of granting broadcast licens€E, you must
**" tfi;ublic interret, conienience, and necesaity. No writer, not
th;';il G;;"d il"fedor. like Willesden, havo.ever been able to

"irt-" it. 
-i*" tt -" S,rptrme Court Justice said about porngglaphy,

;i-;;; 
"ot 

U" 
"Ut" 

to define it, but I know it when I 8€e it"' F4uity
ti irs "ig--;-mel[i"g ..;le may not be able !o define, but we know it
when we see it in a given cas€."-StiratoiH^rcu. 

t Lnow proporrional repreEentation when I see it
too. I think anybody who looks at this knows it.
-Lt ;; irst-""t vo.t this: L€t ua aaEume that I ^- riSht r+ tnJ
b.ii;f gii;itht[ilJ -will 

teaa to proportional representation and this
[iti-rrsse.. Of couree if it h8E 62 firmly committcd supportera;
;h;d i" ;; queetio; it ia going to pass.. 

-If it passea. and it doee

result in proportional representation, will you accept that?
Mr. Hooxs. I did not quitc-
sffi;;g^tci. t*t * oy this bill pass€E-it its. preeent form

."a iii."""tt in p"opo"tiondl repres€ntition. Would you be satis.
fied with that?



(vopovhoral W 'f

Mr. Hoors. I do not know how it would result in proportional
nprentation, unleas you had a [awauit t.hqf, psq[d declare thst it
il;ttbE I lE Ei,piy eaying to you, Eir, that l'e pr-opcs in the
fua"ro, as we have in itie past,-to monitor q"d \ook at 1he practices'

thitrEs tlrat happen- lfiou co"ld'p'rove that votiug from midnight until 8 in the morn'
ite [io1 Ut""ti from voting oi putting tJre precincte- 1n the police
dsiortheat-there ar.e all kin-ds of things-if you,*old not Prove a
o.icUce. a cuEtoE, or eomething that happened, you would not
&;;;t" tlireatitts. fire rcsulta trigger lsoking at practicea, and
You have to do botJr.
'TffiIJt*i-il'ffi*. euits, and let me tell vou, air, tJley "" r.6{

neuiemUor, wheu we talt aUout-proportional repreqentation' we
;; ;T;;forcotten one thinc. We tqlk about that Baltimons er'asem to have forgotten one t!'{'g.

beomea 90 percentmatter if
they

can prDpornt

Elffi-the black folk in -Baltrqrore- happen to like that
*Ut" n"yoiand thae white council people, that i8 not a causa for
iurticiabl6 amatlgement of a grievance.
'-ltt r "-;viriA iB that I tf,ink we have forgotten what precedeAll I am aayiru i8 that I think we have forgotten-what precsdes

; t"rrg,r.g",-ani ttrat is ther€ muEt bo a-practice, there,mr,rnt bg 6
iait.ii'. ind in mv rritten testimonv I have outlined about 30

the larguage' art
condition, and in my rritten teetimony

easv to win.
$nator tlrr,cn. I underetand that.

tl:e also

you one ffi-ot ask you a quear

t#;6;';y I i; ;;; otte' iit""tion? If .-d""d th6 word-"re
I',iG;iouta'6fi- to all of this, why not then would the word
;ii6nt;;lead to the aame result, ercept that.the -prgof would be

lrfih*'l ffit -"gi is-ttlire aUoirt the word "rttul-tE" or "effect,"
if we rrss either one?- SL-""t"" ttercx. gocauEo "iotent" focge€s discrimination analysia
urton DnoEcatoE. rather than reaults''MrlE66B*ir?

$ilg1}-II^,!cH. Becauso it involves an entirely different method
qf nnnlyaia.-'tftr. fioorg. U you could prove t!ra! they ht€nded to deliberately
diffi;i"rit", geeileg"A, to keep blacks.olt of offtce, and never let
them *il;tffi-";;dA the rddt E' tf qh" court F+fttv tdpp$
rf!|f-ei"i ttr"t, :Io thia city we frn{ .thd qh9.y de-liberately in-
te"a"a-"i"Er to [et blacks b€ a part of it, and therefore. we man'
dat€ that they mnst now get proportional representatron' suloe
thev have Einned?"..&e-ii-th"y 

ao oot have to do it,-euppae thp.Q"4 aays' j'-We

nii-in"t thd""s"lt*"" that they-did-iot let bluck' have--offrce,

i,na- *. iU"r"fore manaat proportional representation?" What is
ffi ditf"r""r"-b"t"r"e"-r"sritt ina inte_ut lhat would lead to t]re
A*d;?-Fp.rti"""t repreaeatation? I do not understand'



?royo,.h'ovraL fze? 5

Senator Hercn. The difference is, under intent the (burt exam-
ines the procesa€s which lead to a given results. Under a result t€st
only reeults, regardless of whether anybody intended to discrimi-
nato, are of sigui.ficance in making a determination as to whether a
violation has occurred or not.

Mr. Hooxs. I thought you aaid that you prove intent largely by
results.

Senator Hrtcx. No. That may be part of the circumstantial evi-
dence in raising the ultimate inference of intent. [t is not dispci-
tive in and of itself, however.

[.et me just cits the Greonville News about another Btatement
Mr. Gibson made. "South Carolina'e population is appro.imately 30
percent black, and 30 percent of the eenate ehould be black." There
is another illustration ofa call for proportional repreaentation.

Mr. Hooxs. Yea, eir, I understpnd that. I can tell you right now
that you might 6nd there are many etatementE that we malte in
the h-eat of battle out on the.lines and in the trcnchee that do not
have anything to do with the reaults we s€ek.

I wonder also if there were not included in the Houso bill what I
think iE the Sensenbrenner amendment, if I remember oorrcctly,
which saye that any language in this bill can never be construed as
to ask for proportional representation.

I think the civil rights community even went dong with that
Ianguage, eo that we could not be accusod of seeking proportional
repiesentation. I think that was an anendment to a€ction 2 which
was proposed by a very coneervative Republican from the S0ato of
Wisconsin, if I remember correctly.

Senator Hetcrr. That that really is no restriction; all you have
got to ehow iE one other factor and you have 8rounds. for a viola-
tion, whether truly warraated or not.

Let me quote another remark of a colleague of yours in_the civil
rights community. Rev. JesEo Jackson waE quoted in the Columbia
Sin on October 25, 1981, as saying, "Blacki comprise onethird of
the State of South Carolina'e population and deeorve onethitd of
its repreeentation. We believe that taration without repreaentation
ia tyranny."

I think that the point I am making, Mr. Hooks, i.g that maybe
theae are eimply etatementE made in the heat of battlo. But the
fact is this: thby are being made. And the fact is thi$ I do not e€€
how anybody interpreting that language in the Hous€ bill can in-
terpret it any othei way. It would ultimately lead to proportional
repreaentation, assuming that the Supreme Court would not find it
uncouatitutional.

You have made the point here today that the Supreme Court
nray very well decide-I think it would bo inplqper- for them to
decide it this way-but that the Court may decide that Congreee
haa ths right to aet a legal etandsrd of proof in erceas ofthe consti'
tutional etsndard. I do not think they will find that in the ultimatc
reault, but pereonally I feel that the country ghould not have to utr'
dergo the experiment in the prooeaE.

Mr. Hoorg. Sir, may I make one other statement? I have on
many occasiona in eome cities made the stat€ment that, "Ttris city
ought to have a black mayor.." Sometimea I mnke that statement to



?-po/,'oy.a/- W' 6

the white Dowor atructure; eometiEes I make it to black folk en-
courasinc fhem to voto and register.

Senatoi llrrcn. I find no fault with that.
Mr-oors. I an not at dl suro that Jeaso Jackson may not have

boen tatLiru to a black audience about what tJrey had to do ia
order to get iL--P.dfronal repreeontation was not a question' as far as I can

"eo 
ii. Uet*een 1966 and 1980, when at least we believed that the

effcd tat was the law. lVe did believe t}at.-- t mrui-toU you that we wene shocked when we discovered in the
M;Ub i. fulitcn caso tlnt it required intent. We cefiainly did not
beliere that at all in preparing that caee and taking i! op. .--I do-"oi"ec8ll profirtional rcprese-ntation or the mirror imgse of
th;;;ubti,on Uiiai a prcEont problem up to that point. I do not
tninl, il wae; I do not think it will be now.

Senatoi HrMr. lheae stataments are fme, but thg problem we
are-r8iEi"g-tere toaay is thst theae statsments are being codifi€d
into law. in mv opinion.
-Gi mi quott fiom the Houeo repgrt on H.R. 3112. It stat€E thqfs
tlatiyiaeirof i.ct oiltop"*i"nil tep"eaentationE"lW rel'r
vanl"
--1!E Hoors. I be* Your Pardon?

S"nato. fUMr.-Eviaeice of lack of proportional repreaentation
ia trichlt-retivant in proving a etrtion 2 violation under the reoults
t-1t=I"aood, ther? G no o-ther factor that they.describ€ in thie
mdner. wriat doe that tanguage mean' in your view?

Mr.-Hooxg. tt meano eraEttittre aame thiry to me,. Senato-r, if
t$;-had -gaia *rat proof of -proportional repieentation or lack
t5tigoaG very impo*ant to provd intant. I-just do not think there
i"-."" aife;;co it att betwien intent and-reaultE when you talk
abouf proportional rcpnsaentation.
-G*iiilv. if I weri trying a laweuit, or if you were, for Eome

reason;hiffd by my orgahizition to try a lawsuit-and maybe one
a;til *ill-bo in ttiat $nppy circumste'roFyou would no1sgy t'!qt
evin under intent lack of proportiond repl€sentation deal8 wrth
til;ue"t6; oi"esults, which d;)ab with the question of intent' I do
not t}ink it means any Inone or leas.- i dilhi"kErtainty, if I were trying a Larvsuit,-I would deal witS
*re -fact 

11,at than -we'e five city council people electcd and no
Utrctr-o"ei a lOyear historT, whii-h has to do with repneE€ntation,
;h"td Fu put proportioddl- in front of it or not. I would make
thai gagd arnrmeirt ihether I wae arguing under an intont tsEt or
."""tt" t€tt t ao 

"ot 
aee how I could -E81a any other argunenL I

would have to nso it.
I iust-fail to ea where the word "reEult" in denying or abridging

th;'riglts ir any different froq intenrling, ercept Eorneone tells me
tbat vou cannot.t Io"-""""of prove intent, therefore it becomee a n"tli!Y'

l-think:aud f have said befor€-t]rat the prim-ary-difference iPI think-aud I have said befor€-that the Pnmary-ornerence ts
ttr.t-tue aamioirtration bill would make it difficult, if not impoai-
Ute. to ever win a case, b€cause it would demand that you prove
intent, and iutcnt is a subjective 4atte-r.

I UtitiEe,- *ith Senatoi Mathias, that thg. Court ia Mobilc v'
hl&n did more or leas dim

there



?apohlnal ?q f

tation, ths
--1l4iffiffirynot-Eom}u-fiury point, beca us€ you would
not think lik.e that, but maybe from the viewpoint of eome-they
are eaying, "l-ot'a get inteni in there, and siice it can never b6

S t-a,4-Ua*,,^l o + [' lr'vt a Ajarn''wtz

pnoven, we won't have to worry about it." But I maintain the re
sulto would be abeolutely no different, ercept the gtandard of proof.

I kept hearing the Attorney General aay that t]re reason he
wantad intent was that the standard of proof would be much
higher. Yet he kept saying that reeults would be a part of that
atandard of proof. You have to look at resulta, and i[ may be, in

.8ome caceE, the only proof you do have.*Senator itercx. [e't me juet aay this: I appreciate your courtesy
to Ee and your kind remarks, but the issue ia geater than that.
ltri8 is a critical constitutional i$ue. As a practicing trial lartyer
before I came to the Senate, I had very few caaeE where I did not
have to provs soma kind of intent. In fact, in every criminal caae, I
had to demongtrate intent, and beyond a reasonable doubt. And in
many of the civil cas€s t had to prove intent by a preponderance of
the evidence. It is done every day ia every court of law in thit
country. If t}re propoeed change in aection 2 would make no diffet-

_onpor then why areyoulshling eovehemently for the change?

a Senator KENNEDY' Sure' 'fhe Supreme Oourt etTectively made

thie very frnding t#r"tt"-il"ir-r"""'ry1,rt"" to think that any rea-

It is our intcntrffi"t'ffii;!!]199aecGio"e which "'*"i[t;
H#fl #ffii?Hi:'r;tt*11?"0Jff 1"'Hi"t"'T'"ffJduo'"'"
trrffi"#,ffi1$*Tffi#ffiu'ltpil"d
HTi"x*'#.,-4ffi1";i?tilie?-"+:rmulr';'i+i{trffi
[H#;Ii'ffi "[i"'Jfffu "',""**-',nlt3-'{sii:"aTr'}i
fi ;1r."i';r'[i"ilt"'ii,il"'i.tn:Y],y"#J:"5"ilifi!H:lq
il*i,l ur*i*fitri#T"*i"*" #,li; pii-" sponsorE *tf;'o
with yours ano wrfr iiifcase"ltbEr-J"tlit"n-''€i#

fore, if result tests resulted in

? "bl

Prc-P arq
g.Zo5 - ob , -.i

eaact e requirement of "prcpoilional nepruntrtioa" sf hinqriti6 ilr govetnoontrl
bodio. Clearly the etandard- outliaed atiove rcquirc frr moro tlraa pruf of lect, of
"prooortiood-repuontation." At a mininun, minoritie sould havs to ehc racid-
li pdhdr.d votiirg together rith othor objctivc fecton which efiectivoly prclu&
the-ir perticipauioa in the politicel pnrcs or diluto the valuc of tbeir voto.to

Ttre irue lbon, ir not proporti,oaal reprucntation, but equal sE to tlc political
pnoorr, ltia do not gusr8Dte thAt loiniriti€. wiI bc alactod to o6co; it doo
nrarante tlrat minoritie who arc barmd horu hslding ofEco or rhce vota ers do
bae€d bocEuao of their raoc or oomberrhip ia a language minority group will har
legd ctranoels through which to chdlengc thcir erclueion. By erglueion I msan far
m6re tbaa an outrigEo bar oa votiag or -nrnai.ug for ofEce. fhr Supreme Court her
coarirtontly hsld tlit "tha rigbt of arftagp can bs dcniod by a debaroent or dilrr
tioa of thoseight of a citir.a-r vot jurt er dectivcly ar by rbolly probibitiry tbr

fr,cr crorcirs of thc fraachiao." futrcb v. Srzr+ SI? U.S. 5&3, 666 (196{)'; n aLo



7-povh-onal P"+, I

l[r. Lrvrnrm. Ng, air, I would think, thoqh, from,,neading the
ommittrb ry-porq that the intention iE to impco a diecrinini,tory
impact or efrect standad that is no less t}an the standsrd in ec-
tion 5, and iu fast I think it will be even more stringent becauso of
the Supreme Court decieioDg that lirnited the literal lanrnrace of
aection-5 in the fur q* baEod upon the peculiar purpa6 otsec-
tion 5, which background is not applicable to eection 2. -

Senator ILrcH. Maybe that iE one of the neaaona why I novei gpt
an answer to thst question fro1n anybody, qnd w.9 have the top
legal experts in this particular freld on the other side of thir EEus.
Nobody yet haa angwercd that queetion very satisfactorily, and I
tJrink one of the neaaona they are afraid to answer it ig becauso
they know s€ction 2 must lead inevitably to proportional repnesen-
tation Do you agre€ with that asseEnent?

Senator llercr. Do you see any other result the eeetion 2 change.
could hane, under the implicationg of tem "result"?

Mr. LctruBElr. No, sir; I thin! the word "rrEult" is just aa stroug

Senator Hrtqr. OI(. Thank you.
Mr. Lrvrnrrt lhe second point I wish to make concerning the

amenrl"'ent to'section 2 iE that in my opinion it will go even fur-
tlrer tbaa the effect langrrage of soctiou 5.ln fur v. Uiitd Statr4-
which is the New Orlenne case, the Supreme Court held that the
lit€ral langpage of eection 5 was limit€d, that it would not be given
complete effect according to its tems becauso it had to be read in
its coat€xt, and its crontext was to pnenent chaDga! in laws thst
would result in retrogression in the position of minorities in cov-
ered StatBs

Consequently, in the fur q* the Supneme Court rcjected the
contention of the'Attor:rey General and the Distrist Coilrt of the
Distriet of Colu-bia, which had Eaid that under section 5 the reap
portionment laws were required fs mavimiz€ the political power 6f
ninoritiea. ftere ig no similar basi& however, in section 2 for ira-
pcing ruch a limiting conEtnrction. Consequentln tJrere is a r€al
prcbability in my opiuion that eectiou 2 as amendod will be cou-
strued as requiring the mnrirnization of the political powor of mi-
noritiea in connection with any reapportionment law.

- Another basic point mEffiffiE-t needs to be pointcd o"t nlr- i"i
that while we have uEed in this debato tems of diecriminatoryl
effect or discrinfuratory impact, thin tcrn really in civil rights ju-l
risprudence Eeana disparate impact It doea not have neceesarily I

the connotation of gomething evil or something malicious or mean. \
It eimply EeanE that in its astual operation it produces an effect
on one group that is different than it producee on another. ThiE
hnr lsga borne out in the similar language in title ? of the 1964
Ciliil Bights.Act"

glT-q I
T/zs*r'wronY oQ e' Fve'vna'ut Levexe'*
1vv t

is the standard? Wtit doee the
effectg tegt? Can you define tbat?

r 
ql1



Propo"t' owl ?eP 1

_ Now oorrrlng _to thq consequ€noes of the amended section 2, the
first area that I think this will dramatically affect is with reapect

ing. .S-a result of thC release of the 1980GEffi
uorih the proceaa of revising their congressional
their lesiElative seata, their legislative dfutrictE in
turcs, and political euHiviEion elections.

At preeent these lawe are governed by the traditional constitu-
tional standard of dirriminatory intent or purIoEa. firat waE so
!e$ in WrQht v. Ruhcfelbr in 1964 involving New York Section
2, however, would now apply the new raceonsciouB impact or
result te6t to Stato legistatiie districting and congreesiond aistric't-
ing, and in consequence it would mean that all of theso lawe would
have to be judged.by ho,w they affectad_a particular minority, if it
waa a prot€cted rninsrity under eection 2.

lbe likelihood iE that theae lawg will have to rna:rimize the polit,
icql streqgth of protected minoritiea. Redistristing consequenfly is
gorng to become much rnone raosconEsious and much mori diffiiutt.
ae a rcEulL

tion 2 ie in connection with municipal aaneratione and goverunen-
tal consolidstions. When new aneai are annexed and ar6 subject to
eection 5 preclearance, and the effect is to reduce the overill mi-
nority percentage in the political eubdiviEion, the Supr'eme Court
has'held that the city or the political subdivision muit convert to
singlemeqber {istrict electioni with districtE ger4mandered eo as
to inEurs +hnt the minoritieg would have proportionata representa-

wasonlywith gleat diffiM
d even then with three judges diseenting-the conten-

to congressio.'l *tppertier-cnt F.ri ldlative and local distiict"

lineq
State legiela-

rejected-and even
tion that there could not be any anneratione anyday nnlesE the
minoritiea had the same pliticai strength in the new community
t!a! they had 1n!he old- The Supreme eourt rejected 'hat but noi
without great difficulty, and even then three judies disEent€d.

However, keep in Eind that in connection with eection 5, the lit,
riral consequences of that s€ction have been limit€d bv the Su-
premq Court's decision in, fun which says that thi" gecti6n was de
EiSDed only to preveut a retrogreasion and tftereforu it was not re.
quired to.maximize the-power 9{ prnorifee, but no gimilqr.Irroyi-.gq.rrlq t{) uurrr.EIzll url! Ixrw€r oJ mrnonf,lcE, DUE llo ErrnrlF? prryl.
sion or poEcy consideration would be applicable to E€ction 2. lheno
fore, the fact of the matter ie that sectibn 2 is likely to be applied
ao as to prevent annerations or consoli&tions in thoir tracks
situations:

?.q00 , ProPGeo aYnen(lEonE Eo
I sectior.2 ts tsy. opinion will not accomplish anhhing. The reason iE
th^at this discldimer does not add anytliing new. It hEE aheady been
enunciatad in the very cases that €dtablished the dilution doitrine.
Ttree€ cases have req-uired the abolition of at-large districts, not
withstsnding that they have expreasly artictrlated-thiE discEin;.

flowever,-pofg important, as has been pointed out herae earlier
todaS tryB disclainef wiII be construed in t'he lisht of the languace
at pago 30 of the r€port of the House which safr tbat all votihaii
to do is to show that over e perid o-f lime candidates offerid by the
minorities have been consistently defeated. firis goeE further-than
gny qgqlt decieion has ever gone, gnd iD fast this-was expreaely reject€4-t!i! arXument was eipreesly rejected in ldge v.'Burtan at
pages 1362-136{1.



?-p"',+"t wJ ?r+ tO

Sl-atune^J ot fueema*t Le-ve.vtll

P

q07

qog'q

Ol .qu.l, llgnlllcrnc. to tb. g.n.nl doubt rnd contualon

rilcb th. S.ctloE 2 .rndmnC ylll produc., lr th. !!sgI! ot rh.
ch.ng. lt elU lnfllct. $trll. tb. ir@dt.t. taru. ir rt t.d ln
t.r'rr oi '.!t.ct' va. 'lnt.nt', tb. bottc 11n. l. progortlon l
nclal ra?rarntrtlo, rnd savaaaa dla€8lnlnatlon. Ar . llyaa vlro

h.a baan of cMtal ttl r nurbar ol votltlg rlghta craaa, I htvr prr-

aonally obaaavad tha aD.rgana. ot nff doctrlna yrrlch aaya thtt .
dnosltti, 1. .ntlt!.d to r.pr...nt.tlv.. psopoatloart. to ch.l,a

nurbaaa, and ihre any lay uilch tr pr.ct!,ca dlr.dv.ntrgaa th.t, EsoEp

la rny v.y, ngrrdl... ol lta gtl|.Hlr. vrll.l conc.nra, Ir by th.
lotrr trct alona raod.rad lavalld. . An 'at!act' or 'l'pactr taat

l. nothltrt 3bort ol . foaDl. lor 3p.chl p8r,v11.9. .aA r.v.a..
attGal^dnrtton, rnd n.catalslly tandt to aaacarbrCa and atgaayala,

ratlras tbaa to allavl.ta, Erclal dltlarancaa aad ratagonlarr.

P Ar p.9. ,r, WA.. nor.. rh.r .. ro r.v1..d, ,, -ora'-'-^Inctuda.not only vota8 raglrtrttlon r.qur,raErt, rnd procaduru, but
llto n.thoda of .lactlon tnd .l.ctoral rtncturaa, prrctlc.r lnd
oroc.duraa vhich drrcrr'tlrnrt..' mrrl. drt vorrng 

'y 
allort t,o landrt.

proportlonrl r.prca.ntatidt in rll crr.a, th. raport ilL.r lt c!..tr
th.t thlr i. tha objGtlv. ln rcat ct3.rt

'tt r.ould b. lll.g.l for rn .t-!,rrg. .lactlon tch.r lor .-

. partl.cul.r rtria or loc.l body to parllt a bloc votr,ng
najorlty ov.a a .ubatrnihl p.rlod o! elE conllacotly
to d.f.rt nlnortty c.ndl!trt.. or csd{drt.t ld.nrM.d vlth
th. ltrt.raac ol . racltt or l.ngu.ga llnority. (Iat.).

tHE DISCtAncn IN StertoN 2 ADDS Notrttrc

Th. Houra Comltt.. Rapor! r!..rtr th.t th. rnendod S.ction 2

elll noe b. conltn.d rr nandrtlnE proportlonrl rrpr.tantltion,
b.caura th. rrnndaant Lnctud.a thir ttngu.ga!

'tli. lrct thrt if,nb.rr o! a nlnorj,ty group h.v. not b.on
.lGtad !n nutnb.r. .gurl to iha group,r proportlon of th.
popul.tion rhtll not, ln .nd o! itr.lf, conrtltut. r vlol.-
tlon of thl! ra€tloa..



lhlr dl.cl.hs ,,r- not v.lld. ?h. prlncipl. conlrln.d ln th.
.ddltlor|.l r.ctlon Ju.t guor.d la rlrody Urorl'_rurzlor th. Supr.r
Court and tha lou.r courta hrva arpr.rrly ro hald ln a nunb.r o!
claal. 403 U.S. 12a, lat (l97llr llrlt. v. i.q.3t.r.
a12 u.s. 7)3, 765-5 (l973lr

(l9a0l , zlmr v. Hcx.ltlr.n, a85 F2d 1297. 1308 (C.A.

?.op*b\441 P<a'n

a{6 o.s. 55, 66

5th l97tl r r!!d.
rub nor , a2a u.s.6r6
(19761, Xlrk3.v v. lorrd o! SuD.rvl.or. ol Hlndr Countv, 33a F2d llt
(c.^.'tttl9?7l,€.rt.d.n..3.U.S.968l@r.1g,553f2d

923(c.A.5thl9??)l@,57lr2azog,zie(c.A.,th

rt7tl, l4llgry,Lsl$. 5!t r2d 135t, 1362 (c.1. sth lttll, 3t.y
garat.d rub no! Roq.r. v. l,odo., at9 O.S. 9{t (197t1, prob.bl. Ju!1.-
dtctldr not.d Octob.a t, l9tl, _U.s._r.70 L.ld.2at-!L.

ta E!4!!@, r.pr., th. only d.clrlon of th. court to

uphold lnv.tld.tlon o! . nllil-rnb.r dl.tr,,ct oD con.tltutl,on.l ground..

tho @u8! dacLr.dt

'to 3urtllD such c!al!3. lt ir not .nough th.t, th. rtcl.l
group rlt.gadly di3crininat.d .9.1$tt nlt noc hr.t l.glrtr-
tlva r..tr ln psoportlon to ltr votlag pot.ncl.l' lalz U.S.

rt 763-6)

yat, lt ir thlr r..a crl.. tthlt. v. nm.rt.r. rhlch gava rlra

to th. 'dl.parata lEprct' t.!t yhlch r l.c.r Cosrt Ju.t dl,3rpprovad

ln @, .uprr, rrrd rhlch hrt b..n ut.d Ln trny

calaa to 3trll(. doun rt-IrrEa vottng rrsangarDtt, and to srgulaa

d.llb.r.t. E.rrlErnal.rlnt ot .l.ctlon dlatrlct lln.r tn o8d.8 to .chl.v.

varylng d.gr..a of ncl,rl brl.nca ln rapraa.ntrtlon.

conr.qu.ntly, rr,nc. th. atl.chirr l. .lr.rdy r prlnclpl. flnly

aatabllab.d tn tha var? crr.a vhlch h.va glvan rlta to th. 'dlaprsrB.
hpact'taat ln.l.ctlon crtaa, Ltt rartat.rnt ln th..mdmnB to 52

1r! Al rlt2 do.3 aothlDt to rllaviat. tha forc. of th. dltParlla liP.ct

laguaga uhlcb prc.d.a It, and ltr t.ct, lt It obvloua tr6 cha

Coultt.. n.poEt thrt th. tPon.ost ot tln 3ll2 lntod lor lt to tttFos.

ln av.n ffir iigorour dlap.r.t. lEp.ct 3tlndrrd thln th. ono dlalPPaov.d

ruPar.

tllE nutr ?aAt tllE fltl,rrRE
OI XI}TONITIES r<l ELIe! REPRESETTTIIIVES IN PTOPOR?ION !O
?lltlt Nurllf, ns Dal23 NCMlr-llBLISf, DI SCRI}II]{A?ION

\ "n. 
dltcl.h.a rdit.d to t2 n.c.trrrlly vlll b. conttru.d ln th. \

I
I lfgnt o! th. Hour. comltt.. n.port guot.d rbov. (P. al Bo th. .!f.ct
I

I ch.t tt uotd b. 1II.9.l tor .n lt-lrrg. tch.r . . . to ponrlt r bloc

I v,gc!,nE ujorlty ovaa r 3ubttlntlrl P.rlod o! tina conaiat.ntly tot'
larlret trlnorlty cudldrt.r. . . ' (R.port, p. 2t).
I

I t" b.1n9, ts ti crrir "h.r eh. lt.r.n nG o! ch. contrr,.. n.port
I

I loor lurth.r th.n rny .xltting court d.clrlon ln mndrtlng proportiotrrt.
I

I 
rtclrf dlrcrhinttlon. No c... v.t d.cld.d hr. h.ld rh.t th. mr. lrcr

I thlt nlnorlt, cudldtt.r rr. conalac.ntl, d.f.rt.d op.rtr.3 Bo inrtlld.c.
I !n rl.ctlon DIrn. Inda.d, tha clr.r.pnvlourly cit.d rlt hotd to tha
t-

l.ontrary. tlr.y r.qulr. loE .daltion.I !.ctorr, 3uch .t . hlrtory otI
lpert dtrcrlnlnrtlon, unraaponalvanrrr of lcAir{rtora to nlnorlty n..dc,t:lrnd Ui. 11I.. yat. tha rpontora of HR !112 enrlouncrd ln th. Comltt..
I
h.port thrc ruch ir th.lr 1nt0t.
\



ff.q?b'ztu

?roponhb'.al eeP'lL

/ ttrrthzlrnccrrvhlch g.v. r1.. to th. rc*.ll.d'ztm!

dttutl,on .n.lyrl!,' ultlch 13 r.rpontlbl. fos h.ving urh.r.d ln .

vl'ltual raconrtrucglon of r atrggaaltig nurb.r of clty camcllr, county

coElaalon.rr rnd boerir o! .ducrtloo tn tha routh..atara tnlt.d
St.t.r. A1l ot thlr h.f b.c .ccoryl,l.h.d vlthout my lhoelng o!

di.calnlnrtot? lntant. ln iany lnatancaa, at-Irrg. alact!,on lrva

ln .:1rtanc. for ov.s 60 y.rrt, rdopt.d durlni r p.rlod uh.n j,t 1. c.rt.ln

thay vara not alarlgnaa ra .nginat of dlacrlnlnatlon, ua8a ltrual dorrn

undaa tha Zlmar rpproach. tr! r nurbat o! olbaa craaa, .t-trrga lava

.D.ctad aubraquant to lr6a naa d.nlad p8.claaarnca undaa Stctlon 5.

t p.r.onrlty rr lulll.r Ylth . nulD.r ol ,uritdlctloD. ln G'oagl' vlrlch

aoutlt to uta .!-la89a alagllon al4ly aa . conv'nl,attt, s"dy rln' ot

celylng rith tha on.-..n-o!la-vot. Pr1nc19l. lollortng t^b' court''

116l d.oitlon ln !90 o-s. a?a l196tl. rn.l lit

!970 d.cirlon la ttrdl.v v. JuDlor CoI!'.€. Dlttalct, 39? g'!' l0 (1'?Ol '
holdtng th. r.rPPortloai.trc Prlrrcfpb t6 toclt gov'nltg bodl" tuch

ar boardt o! aducatlotr and cltl.a.

th. lnY.lld.tlo8 of lt-h49. rhctloar hra b'3r coarola'd vlt'h

. . s.gulrolt th.G .l.cttoD al.trlctt br grrrlnudor'd 
'o 

l' lo

rchlaya vatAltrg d.gra.t of ProPoatlonata r'31rl r'Paa"ntlGlot' t't

s.rdylng dllutlon, th. court. ln th. fltth Clrqllt h.v. b..n guli.
dlr.cG 1n hotatlng th.c nc. auit br con.ld.r.d. ,tttlrt.r v. !tsX.ithcn,'
.upr. (a!5 t2at .t l!011,
@L, tupil (!5a F2d.t Ml, unlt.d str!.t v. Bilrd of surni.or.
ot Forr..t Countv, .uP8. (371 l2d .t 9551 , .nd in Ij!E!!!I, th. Court
in atfact mdatad rrchl grrrlnrndara ln ordar to ln3ura tor d.gr.a
o! ploportlon.ta r.pr.r.ntrtlon. (S.. P.rttcullrly, 5ta f2d !t l5l,
.nd r-udga Gaa'3 coacurrlng oPlalon, .t P. 1331. ?h. rarl P.rvarivanota
ot tbl. rr.r'. dlt€rlrtnrcldr 8.qulr.rnt i. no! u.slly 3P.ll.d out ln
yoaaa lo DaG of Bla cla.! los obvlout ralaoat. tt al4ly la al!.cturt.d

_Dy tha @urt'a lal[alng, rlthouc arPhnaCloa, to rPPsova any Phn uc.Pt

t! l. th. !!E aflry.rlt. lQrc! all'lutlon PslnclPl.,, ol couar..
t!.t @ dlt PProv.6, .nd uhlch tlr..rDdst to
Sactloa 2 aaala to raatora 1! u .vat Dra rlgorout !on. llt.t tlr.
rtand.sd irnttrr r ravl.ad irctlon 2 vllt t,. .v.n Dla m.Pr'ng cu

, h.ratofoaa, t!. anl. r.a oa. .ol.ly ot Jualg.-r.d. l.v,
dillitr,rd to'llU ltr th.9.p'lD th. coE-lau tr.dlttoa. l'lho'r, hn.v.l,
Congr..r .n ctt lt lnto l.v, tblt r.Pr.rat. . Poucy-d.cllton by th.
proP.r poucy-r.tlng body, rrld th. consta gan.r.lly .PPly th. ltrtuca
Dora torcatully thrn tha Judga-lrda rula. tc lr not .van cartaln, lor
rreupll; aa to vhath.r tba courta vosld conllnu. to aagulra tho Fltth
clrcult.. rhoylng ot ih. trrdltl0nrl 'rggs.g.t. of l.ctort' to lnv.lld.c.
rt-l.Eg. rctlng' or rbply tdopt . g, g rul..'

3.condly, 3.ct1o! z toaor rard rltll r Eou.. comltlo.. roPort
rp.cltlcrlly dacl.rlng thrG congra.. ltitudr th.t ln rny cotErrnlBy vh.a'
btaekr bact baan unrbl. ovar . Parlod o! tlla to alact raPraaottatlv'a
cilnaur.t to thal! nurbara, at-trrga alacllona at Dd condamod by

S.ctldr 2. ttr. r.Poat llrntt th. !.ct th.! bl.ch. h.v. no! rogi't'r'd
o8 b..a .l.ct.d lD th. ..r. ProPortlon r. ulrtt.. (n.Port, pp. 7. 91,

rlllng .pPrr.nt thrt S.ctlon 2 lc ei!.d rt .chlavlng ProPortlon.l s'Pt'-
rantatlon.



?P
12b-2q

?roVo.runal AeP' 13

hraa arrudtr{, horaw.r, th.t dra cogrtl coatlnu. .!tas th. .. .r ,.i
.Itrdr.lrt ot Sacrlori l, to r.quir.. .h6.1n9 o! .orthlng ln rdalltloa.

to rha ln btllty of dnorlty pastona to er,n .l.cttoD. ln ord.r io invrlld.t.

.t-lr8g. .l.ctloD!' t!!. glq lorullr Ylll contlnu. co provlda th.r

'rorthlDg i1..'. !...nthlly, .r .p?lt.d, th. Court. htv. 91vo
conrtollltrg altnltlc.ttc. to Eh.t prr! ot th. j!@.nrly3t. uhl'ch ,'a

cotE.rn.d ur.th r hltgoay of prlor att.crlDla.tr'on. 'Ttt. hlEh Polnt ol thir

atr.logErt clr in llrtr.v v. Sup.rvltors ol Blndr countv, 53a P2al l3t
(C.1. ftf lt77l, c.rt. d.!. ala u.t. t5t. dt.a. tlrfCorrrt b.ld th.t'lt

n. ne.ra.ry ooly to attov a Prat hl.taay of dlErtrln tlo b .4...

uarahtad to r-tfrag, rnd that tha rt-larga achar P.rDatuatad 'rn'

arlat]t! d.'rtrl ot rcca.. by tlra r.cl.l rlnorlty to th. Polltlcrl
pacaaa.'

tal El,D ilSuLt ot lxt A,.ID ttoll ot At-tatct vottllc UNDII
92 II RACITLLY PBOPOIrIIONAL R!'RISENIAATON

la paaylonsly atrtad, In avary crla yhara at-l,arga alactlona hava

b..a .ucc.r.lulty lnvrlldrt.d by €ourt d.cl.r,on, thar.hav. b..n .ltostt
by th. pl.lntlttrt caE..l. vhlch u.u.lly hrv. b..tr rucc...lul, to
urd.t. . sody yhlch not oaly cdtv.rt. to alagt.-rarbar d1.ta1€tr,
btrc .l.o to arcLlly g.ss:rr.ad.8 .lntl.-rtb.r dlatrlcta ulrlch'basa. 

..

y.ayl,trt dagr..r ot nclal proportlonrllty. Aa r l.yy.a vho h.r b..!
of cot|aal lD aav.nl ot' th.[ crlar, 1! har confroaGa.t r la arary

on . tMrtrbly, Ura .ttoat It rrd. to g.8ryr.nd.a .l.ctlon dl.talct'

tbr! rrlft h.v. . rllllrrr ot 651 to ,Ol daoalty cltlt.tt.. .lnc. lt !'

t.lt by clvll rlghga 9rarP. ur.t b.€ruaa ot th. t.nd.trcy ot Lny 
.

drorltlaa noc to raglatar or vota, r tubatlrtlrlly graatat P'lc'nt'g'

tlrrB a bara Droaltlt lt aacatal8y to haura alactloa' lhlt h't rlto

layaaLbly b..n tb. rrperl.scr tD coan.ctton elth Pa.cl..smc' ln

cov.r.d ,usltdlcllo'lt utrd.8 5, of tlr. votlng.i19ht. lct,. ln otl' clt'

vhlch ! h.oatt.C ttwqlvtag'tfltt.. Countyr Grorgl'rr I Yrt .dvl.'d by r

rapr.rct ttv. ot.tt[ Juatlc. lr.P.rttnt ti.t t!.y Yould rgr" to PrG

cl.rr r ringl.-r6.s Atttllct Plln il on. atlatrlct uould b. d'vlt'd

ro .t to psonld. loa l ' 701 blrcl t Jorltli.

t'trl. .PP.r.atty irr hrn t!. rrgrrioc. vlt! Juttia' D'Prstrnt

o(llctrla tD tb. vocla{ UEbt. dlvl.loB 1! . nurb.8 ot oth.a c"..,

!o8 !n lrrl!.d Jnl.h or€rnlt.tr.on. v. c.r.v, 130 u.!. laa (19??1. drra.

tt . rafaranc. to an rnonytsla t.l'.Phon. call lrot a raPr.altc'ttvr ol'

Glra Juatlca D.parc,rnt to thlt at!.ctt

'A rGrt! rrb.a ot th. t-gr'tl.tlv. tr..PPorclotrrat Cilltt.a

t..tM.d rh.i ln t!. cour.. ot tn .GlnEt rtrat t.l.Phona

conv.a'rtloot vlch Ju.tlc. D.P.st!.nt oftl€lalt, h. got th.

!..llng th.G 6tl sould b. Prob.bly rn IPPlov.d fr'gura los

ttr. nar-tilt. poFlrtlcrl 18 tha ....Sly allttslct ln vtlcb

th. E.aldlc Corulty Y.. locrt.d. r dt.trlct .DDrorhat.ly

6ll ndr-vhlt. $nd.r th. li?2 plea.' (a!O U.8. rt 152t.



Ptapr.*r'or,'il ?<a' 14

t;
I _ 

ni.t l. b.tng .ought h.a. lt gov.anDnt l .ctlo! ulrldr fore..
l::T* 

rnd Flbllc olflchlr to th!,nr rnd rcr .lon, nclrl lur...
!,,,,
&Il, 7t r.l. L.r. lZO7, t26O (t9?Ot. tt tt, ln .!f.cr, .D h.1rt.nc.upoD a.tlagrtad .l.ctlon dl.trlcta, ytlci r.bf-orcaa th. bloc-totlngryadrar. D.eld v. G.rslton, ,S! ,2d ,l! (C.A. 5tt| fr?, l. guct
raeaaaa dlacrrrlraGloa aracaa.bataa, 8atha8 thaa laducat, raclal taaalonr.talv.8.lte ot C.lllor:,nlr t.a.ntr v. !.t1., alt U.r. 265, Irt (Oplnlono( Ju.tle. Doy.lf, nrrfr.

h[t Ir. tuatr,ca t!.nn.!, r,ho la no ]r.rt, o! b.1l9n d1.clhtarttoar{b.a rc.rrtnl,r.d ttr.t rn .tfort to
cal' bo u"d 

:t. 
r 'con*1"t*: to ..g!.t.r. rh. 98qrp. . . rh.r.Df

truat8.tlag lt. pot.nthlly .ucc...!ul .!tor!t .t co.Iltioa bui,ldl,ng
rcro.. rrclel lln r.. Uar.t.d J.yt3h.Orqrnlr.tlona v. Car.v. 3uDt., I
lat0 U.a. rt 172-173). ll. furth.r not.a Urtt ruch I pollsy rD.y

to rtbrl.ta ou8 aoclatytr l.tdrt lrta conrcloualaaa, rugirrtl,ng thr
ultltty .84 paoprl.ty of b..!rg d.cl.loaa on . t.cto8 th.t, ld.ally
b..rr no r.lrtlonrhlp to .D indlvldur:,.r r.orth or n..dr,. (id.,
9r. f ?31 , utd thrt 't{. crnnot e.l!, l,gnor. th. .ehl r.rltty thtt
.v.n . bolga pollcy ot rrar.gnt!.nt by r.c. l. vl.e.d .r uaJurt by

tr rly ln our 3ocl.ty, ..p.clrlly by tho.. indlv1du.l. etro .r.
.l!.ct.d by . glv.n cl:..lttcrtlotr.t (td., p. l7al.

A rEra practlcal concarn elth proportlonrl rrprrrut.tlon.
hoEvar, hra ba.! rrtlcutttad lD th. tuo cr..a d.rltn! Dat dlsactly
vlth th. .ubjct ot .t-l.rg. tottng.

l! whltcod v. Chrvb, rupan, a0! O.S. .t 156-157, lt rrr .lld

't'h. Dlrtllct Couacr. boldtng, .tthough on th. frclr of thi.
crra llll'tad to gutrutta.Lng on. rlclrl group tapnaant.tlon,
Ir not .r.ll,y contrlnad. tt la upr.aalva of tha Daa
grnrnl propo.ltlotl thrr |ny grdrp ylth dlrtlnctlv. lntirlrtr
[r.t b. r.pr.rur.d ln l.i$lrtlv. h.lla lf tt la nuLroua
anqrgh to coE nd rt larat ona tat! aDd aapraaantr I irlorl
llvlng ln .tl .rar .utflcl.ntly corptct to coa.tltut. .

. E t!b.a dtatrlct. tlrl. .ppro.ch yould Drt. lt dilltsult to
laJet clalrt of Da[ocrata, napubllca[r, oa ,albarr o! rny

. potl,tlcrl orgrntreiloir ln Hrrlo! Courty vho llv. ln rhrt
rould br .rl. dl.trlctr ln . rr,ngl.-Drb.r atlrtrlct. ryat.!
but uho tn oa. ya.a or uorh.r, o-E-8.!Eillgr, rs.
auburgad ln r ona-3id.d nrltl-mnbrr dl,3tlict vota. Thora

.ra alao unlon orlot.d Ert..rt, Uta ualv.rrlty c@nrntty,
r.Ilgloua os .thnl,c group. occupylng td.ntMrbl. .ra.a ot
our h.tarogaa.oua cl,tl.t md urba[ rrart. Inda.d, tt Eul6
ba dtttlcrrlt toa r g!..t nray, t! not ,Dtt, mrltl-!.nbar ..

dlatrlctr to aurviv. rnrlyrj,r undar tha Dlttrlct Court,3
vlar unlart cotrbin.d rtth rotr votlng arreng.rnt ruch rr
proportloBrl r.pr.a.ntrtlon or cumhtlva votlnE rlmd tt ..

prov!.dlng rapraa.ntrtloa lor nlnorlty prrtlaa or lnt.s.rtr.
It th. v.ry l.t.t, rlftrmnc..o! th. Dt.trlct Coult.rculd



kopor|t>v,oJ- ?<at' l{

rgern rndh.. lltlgltlon conc.snhg ri' 'nrltl-mb'r 'llttrlct
.y.trlta t|d vld.ly .ryloy.d l! Urlt country" ('Ol u'E' 

't
n rt6-lr?t.

tn th. Plur.llty oPtnioa ltl Cltv of Hobll' v' !oli!]r' tuPll'

tl8. tnatlca 3t na3 Poa.d alrltra gu"tloD" l! r'tPot' to tb'

AllraottDt oPt!1o! ot Juatl€' t'r'ar!'U, ulrlcb 
''n '!t'ct' 'dvoc't'd

r c€attltucrdr.l raqulra.ot o! ProPortlon'l r'?s'r'8t'ttoa lor bbclr

or ot!.8 tl.raor rio hed b..D .gbr'ct'A to 
' 

hl'tot':f ol 
'lltcslrln'tldtt

'ft It dltllcElt to P.so.lvr hov ttL t4tlirttalr ot

tha dltaaatlrt ogl,tlo'l throrry o! gsouP r''Pa"'tlt'tlott

cdrl(t s.tlon Ut b. c.Dl^aad. t!rd"d, c'rtrln Prrll'dnlrlt

practlsrl quaatloaa l-adl't'Ly cil !o rlldl c'D oaly

!d.8a of . rlaorlty o! tlt' !'otlng Peul'tldr t8 r P'rtlcu-

. 1.8 EalclPrltGtT b. nb.at ot 
' '9outlc'l gaouP'? llov

hsg. rr.G . 'tlorrPt b. to b' I 'politlcll grouP't cltt 
.

.n, '9rat9' c.u ltr'u 
' 'Polltlc't gaouP'?. tl Dot' rbo !'

to ary trilch rgroug.' rt. 'Polltlcll gsouPt'? crn 
' 

qsrutt'd

eoG.8 b.loa{ to Dra ttrrtr a' tPoutlcrl grouP'? Cta th'r'

ba Da. t!.! on 'PoUtlcal gasPt 
'roe 

t1t131 vsg131 (r'g'r

trrb-riasfc&, ttrll.!-lrt8ta'4. Doltttr-lrriglar Jrvtr

cathollct, DlocaacrDtrt, c'! ttr'r' b' Er' thln on'

'poutt€.l gsoP' rcog ndtrlrlt' !'ot'8'? Do th' 
'n'vorr

co .q7 ot th... qu..tlottr Argeia uPo't t'b' P'at16tl'r d'D-

tslPhlc €o[Poaltloa o! e 91vo cityf Upon th' tot'l 313'

ot lCr YoGllt PoFrl.llot? t,Psl dl' totrl 313' o! l't'

got.aabg bocy? UPo ttt toEr ot gor"rrirnt? uPon lt'

hlatory? .ttt 
g.ogrlphli locetlonl 'ri' !'ct thlt 

'v'n
Ur.t. Ps.llrln ry qurrtti'tir lry b' t'st'ly unurrenblr

auggaaGr fr oC ula cotE'tturl ril! Pr'ctl€rl trllrcl"

' la tla c6atltutl6[l th'oty 
"F!t'd 

bt7 t!' dltt'tttlag

o9lttloo. PotttDg to otta 
'1d' 

!b' totrl rb'llc' of tuPPoat

. Coc ti.t ti.os, l.a tlt. conttltutlo! ltrtt" 1"6 O'8' 
't

7t, t.a. ,r, .. 
.,, , ., 

.

tL r.lc.sat dt.t r. h.Y. rrld b'toa'l tlt' tE dl't' gu'ltlon

h.r. i. dlacrlrflatosY bP.ct 
".. 

aircrt.rinrtoqy tB!'8t' but !h'

botG- llD. It ProPortlon.l 8.Pr"'[trttdl' notlllng could b' El'

1?!.ctr,ct:., Ds. lnJurl,out, or Dr. dlvitlv. ot. natloarl unlty ttr.!..
' tha lal-..r gbrt itlacrat . groupa rra .atltlad to proportlonal rcPrrrea-

t t10n. rt er,lr coqr.t.ly d.atsoy .,,y hop. th.t ttr. bl.ck. .nd
oth.r rrchl dnorltl.a tn thla coutry ytll .var Ur tntrgatrd lnto.
tl|. torrl .ocl.ty.



q ?l-37

lropo*'ou,,l- % ' lb

s.ctl,on 2, hou.v.a. 1. r P!E!!!!g lN, .nd .PPtl.. not ,ut! tt Utt\

potDt ta tlr of lnlthl .a.ctr.tG. ud unllt. S.ctlon t, la aot llrtt"

lD lta 1.914!.tlYa Ft?o3. to Pr.v.nrlng only a.tlogs'lrlotr rsltint tso

cbrng.., but lt llk.l, to b. .n!orc.d .ccorallng to lt. cl"a t'ttrt.

untutt.d bl!' tla P.cuura FlrPor.t ot St. ttr. E crt' ttt'l! dc'-

rt8at.a ttr. t.adoc:i o! tla courtl !o .n!orc. ih. Votl'ng ilghtt ttt

lD a brc..l, tvaaPLng rnnaa. 5l1la lha cata daala ulth Pa'clo'a'nc'

ot.n.lr..Pgortloudrcglrn.rrdnot.nlnn.Irtlon,ih.crr.lsa.sta.
tb.l.a. p.rtllast b.!. ra b.!Dg tndlc.tltt ol tha g.tt'rrl 

'tt1cu6' 
ot

tha €ourtt. tn th.t caaar a !.r r..Ptoatlou"rt PI'n er' d'vlt'd to 
"

toglv.th.blrct.lntLrrorl..!aoBabl.ckvot'r!'Josltl2dlttalct'
Pr.vlotr.lyth.ytt.dDotl..tothth.AttoEn.yG.n.rrlrndth.dlreslct

clust ln tla Dlrtrlct ot Coluolr r.tu3.d to .PPtov. th. Pl.n, hol.v.a,

bG.Baa lt t!. dlltslct ll,n.a hld b..! d!.rB tn rn !.tt-tl.t coalltur.-

t1dr, rath.a th.! . tlorth-3oudr ona. bt.cka l''t'ly vould hrv' rchl'vt6

attatrlctr grua8.!t..l!g tbo proporcloa.l r.P8'r"trcloa' l! oc!'a

yoada, th. lof,r c-ourt bald ttt.t th. a.dl.trlctlnq h.d to b. .lona to .a

to Err,'!lt. blrcf voll

ttra guprar @urt raJ.ctaA thlt contotloa 6ly blt loollng at rha Pasul

purDo.. o! 3t, .nC th.tr only by I 6-! uJoally, Ju.tlc.. nrlr., r.sthlll

.nd lra$nrn cont.ridlng tlt.3 Und.r tt, ptoPoailon.l r.Praaantrtr'on vaa

r.gutr.d. ttr. !.rorlty h.lal thrt la 55, Coagr..t u.. r.lnly coac.ni.d

ulrh 9!!!!llg vhlch !!gl}E! ln r.troqr.ttlon.

th. con.ld.3rtlonr uhlch prolPc.d . t Jorlty ol th. Coult !o

prolortlonrl rapraraitatr,on tn th. laar caaa vlll not ba Paaaan! undar a

parlnanant lav ruch .t Sacclon 2. tlra laCt.ara tlrruaC la not ,uat .t

cotrr.A ,uttadl€tlonr, rnd lr not llrlt.d to Pr.r.rvbg trh. @ 49
uta.

tt. losDd.tloa tor ru€h . dl.tlnctlo h.. rlaardti uiro leta Uy tlr
Dl.tr1et @urr ln ttr. Dl.381ct ol Coludl'. 1!

!]@. tl? !. supp. t!7 (D.C. D.c. ltlll , rh.8. th. cour! alltcu...d t!.

lpllcatlal. o! .o8.tati6a .t t.oltb, rtld 18 (l.$ylag Paact..srnoa b.c.Er

. pl.! na Dot garayreat a.d ao .r to h.lr8. PaoPortlonrl a.Pr.a.at !1o

to bl.ct., h.td ti.G t!. !g nrla d1d tlot rgPly to .!n.8.t1otttr !.o.r

ra.ly t r]rsllt tllt tb.ra v.t no r.taotr.r.lon, e.r no! lutllc16t has"

Slrtt rt!r, ln Ut. 9l]!IllgJ!i!s!!gl!! €rto, nrPa., tlr. dl.trlct oouEt

hrd dlt.p?aoy.d ti. rrut.t.tloo .ltog.Ur.a, d..Plt. tll. hct tirt th. dla-

trlcta htd b.a8 d.?lr.d, ao .. to tnanr. bt.cta ProPorclonrl r.P8.r.8trtl6.

rt. court n. conc.trr.d *111y by ul. lrct th.t bt.ct. n.v.rtlr.l.a. Yould

no loa9.8 b. . rjo8lly ta tb. n.r orhst.d clty. fi. guPr.r Coor! r'-

,.G!rd 15. att.t8lct court'a d.cltlo[ ol thla 1..u., but not.rlthottt tc

dltficulty,.nd.o.D tirar b? olrly.6 co ! r.Jorlty. a22 U.S. !5' ll9?tl'

f!h. r..tga o! alr' thla it cl.aat ttla und.d s.ctlon 2 rlll rtoP

Eat anDGatldra rld govrstrrltrl Caaaolldatloaa !n Utalr tsrcka, los utrdaA

t!. sadlDg ot 12, yltbout tb. 11r1t1t9 oonatnrotlon rPpll'crbla to 33, 'ny
atEc.tlon drtch r.ducaa r bl.Gt oa l.nguaga-tltroalty t!.JoElty la ProacrlD.a