Racial Bloc Voting Notes From Senate Hearings (Testimony and Prepared Statements)
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January 27, 1982 - February 2, 1982

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Case Files, Thornburg v. Gingles Working Files - Guinier. Racial Bloc Voting Notes From Senate Hearings (Testimony and Prepared Statements), 1982. e7b3163b-dc92-ee11-be37-6045bdeb8873. LDF Archives, Thurgood Marshall Institute. https://ldfrecollection.org/archives/archives-search/archives-item/ff14d86d-b3c4-4dc1-8435-98b505a89ca1/racial-bloc-voting-notes-from-senate-hearings-testimony-and-prepared-statements. Accessed June 13, 2025.
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Tasti R,ACIAL BLOE VOTI}TG TToTES F?.Ot.{ SE}IATE HEARI}IGI Januarv 21, I98 2 of Attornev General l{i1lram French Smith (paqe G9) Et" Voting Rishts Act had as "";l"critical purpose'' rrto encourage states and localities to bring blacks anrl 0ther racial minorities into the main- stream of American political lif.e." f,not just to quard. against racial rliscrinination in historically Ciscrininatory jurisdictions.l "in revisiting the J statute in 1992, the emphasis should be placed, on the positive objectives of the leqislation rather than Cwelling on tire chapter that led tc passacre of the act 17 lrears Elclo.tr (?I-72) (gut then sar/s'he opposes the results +-est, sarTlng the then-existiriq act hac succeedec i-n onenino acces,s. ) (paoe :5)(jiscussi.ng the proooseC set+-ion 2 effects +-est,, anC saying i ts "loqical ccncl usion" i 5 "proportional representation" o: "cluotas"T L?,J> .J "T|-fis c?rtainlrr contrarv tc aalr of our basic orinciple,s of go'.lernment. AIso underltrin<T all of this is sort of an i:noli-cation taat bracks wil-1 on'll'' vote fo= 'olacl< candidates and c+nite5 r.ri 1I only ',7ote for *ririte can,'i.iC.ates. That of corrrse is not trr:e. One of the best exano-l-es of that is the eit:r of Lost Ancfeles, ',rhere a bi-ac1< naYor of course lras electerl 'rith rnanl' ..rhi la rrA+6e I thinl: tl:e concept, the idea, c! the 'institutionalizinq of a systen 'rv':1 j.ch ttoul4 be basea. upon the prernise -uhat 1:'l acl:s are {oinc1 to rlote f or black can:1i dates and r.rirites are qoinc.f to vcte f or r.rhite candi dates Racial oolarization, 2 is a very ':nfortunate scheme." (thi-s was a favorite theme of, opoonents of the resr:Its test -- that it assurned tirat raci-al lcl-oc votinq existed everln'rhere. Of course, the caseg- €hat use the concept nake clear that it ls sometring to be Droven. ) er from Rerrno AAG- Civil R,rqnts Div. of Justice (fSO)fn response to question from subcommittee about the Department's policv regarding preclearance of annexations, P.eynolds refers to f.i-@, 'r. Unite<l States ease , 446 U. S. 155, 187 (1980) , r.rhich upheld denial of preclearance to a qroup of annexations. T-\e letter notes that the Department supported this result. The letter, io footnote 9, cites the eourtts reasonins: The drstrict eor:rtIs 'lecision, the Court he]d, '..ras not "e1earl-r,/ erroneous" -- three rlilutirre factcrs rrere cited: the at-1-arqe eleetora'l sYstem, the resi :l-enclr rec',-f i :ement f cr of f iceho l-A.e:s , anrl tl-le iiqh .l.eoree of racial ':Ioe '.rct1nri. " Tllen, sav,s tl:e Depa:tment in e'raluatinq annexatlons foL-'l-o"rs tire satnd.arcs followed bv tre federal courts] "T'ris is {one on a sasq-$1r-ca.3e basis in consiCeration cf a1l- tne relevant facts. :\nongr the factcrs considered are the effects of the prcposed annexation, upon the racial make-up of the total population, votinq-age population, and registered voters. I{or.rever, the Department does not u.se anl, rictid mathematical cut-off . Each su,bmission is erraLuated individually. The existinq rnethod of qo.tlernment, inCluding'..Ilrether tile e-l.ectroal sVstern Deo't) to Hatc'h su!:committee Racial polarization, 3 :rovides for ma joritv or plirralitrr vot:.nc{ , f-or fu11-Sl-ate cr "sinole-shot" votino, anC for electi-on bv district or at-1arcle votincr, is considered, alcnq r,rlth such natters as the extent of racial bloc votinq. " Testimonv of Prof. ''l'tr;tlter Berns (.1,m. Enterprise Inst.) ( opponent ) (paoe 231) "So section.2, as amended, will require proportional reDresentation, and this, ds I argue in rny prepared statement, will oromote raciaL bloc voting on the part of non',rhites and ',uhites alike, and sueh voting tlil1 have unfortunate consecluences. "r "And I woader, if a qroup's intere.st is defined b"i race, r,rhy -'ve bother to hold elections and what r.re nean be representative government. I:Iere I will read from the concluding sectioa of rnlz prepared. statement: rRepresencati're government does not imply pro- _oortional =epresentation or any version of it that is li1<ely to enhance bloc voting blz discrete oroups. The Framers of the Constitution refer=ed to such groups as 'factions, t and they did their best to minirnize their influence. The idea that a leaislatlve assemby should be a 'mirrorr or a I ref Leetion' of the people r.ras advaoced and aCvaneeC assiduousllr by the opponents of the ConStitutj-on, the qrcup r\re call anti-Federalists.', (Berns, of course, ignores the 14th and. 15th amenCments!) P:eoared. statement of Ben'iami-n Hooks (5xec. Dir., ttrAACP) (pacre 275) "Hhat is alwa.rs 'amenable to calibrati-on, i',1-f . Chairnan, is the result of a challenged election Racial- polarization, 4 scleme. In nany instances, no blacl< will have been elected !n the d,istrict I s historv despite the f ac+- that there may be racial bloc votj-ng and a mrnority oopulaticn of fiflY percent or better. " Prepare,l statement of Vilma l4artinez (Exee. Dir. Gen. Counsel - I.!-\LDEF ) (paqe 3OO) "t{exi-can Americans have been barred from equal access to the political process by larvs sueh as those I '1ave rlescribecl above $trrqinq voting -ro1}s, et={ as '.re11 as bv at-Iargre election systems racial crerrvmandering, violations of the one person/ one vote pr:-ncinle and blz extensive racially polarized vctiilg. " (tl-ris statement is found in l'ter discussion cf sectirn 5, but it surelv applies tc the need for the act as a r,rhole.) Januarrr 23. :!-o32 !estinon.r ef Lauqhli-n !.IcDo:ralrl (Di-:., Sor-rthern f.en. ofii-ce - -LCLIi fc'rnd,. . fne. ) l-(narre 359)[_. assinn reference to b-lce vcti:rq as a sinner tactoy' P:ep::ed Stalenent ( 331) I l-tclo::a1C :i --es r-he fri-rref iel-d Count'.', S.C. case't- (j'l:C.aiir '.,. Lrrbran4) in "rhic=r Judre Citapnan f ounC, ?.acia-l polarizat'i on, 5 '!:efore i,lociLe (tle deci.sion 'ras rer;ersed, after tlooile) an unccnstitutional infrinoement of r;otino riohts in oart .becausS "flrere is bloe ,,zotinn ,b.r the ,+hites on a sca.le that his eourt has nerrer i:efore observed . .. t{1ites absolr:tel'l refuse to r./ote for a bIack." (38?) flatls EdqefieLC Countv had a historv of\ intentionaL =ace dlscrimination, but after l4obile the court found a failure to prove :-nten{ F(395) lmcoonald also cites Crcss ". 3gIter, ir :^rhich there were statements tiru6)"race had, alr+avsJ been cri-tical in citlr politics. He ft trtac:< \\winninq candi date f or Citlr CounciJ-Jtestif ied that Ithe primarir thing' that had caused black candj-dates io lose in e] ections f or the City Council :tas race: I It I s j"reen on racial 'l ines. t " Preoare4 Statenent of Barrrz G::oss (CU.ty) (opoonent) (paqe 4431 'rln the ease of b'!acl<s thrs lTtot/e t-lproporilonal representaticL/ also resuj.res nail+,ai n bot:r that racial bloc voting is in the norn and that it is, or ought to be a Ccnst"i-tuti-cnaLLrT protected norrn. For rac'iaI blocl< votincT tc be the norm it is further recrr:ired that all i:lacl<s ha'/e the sane interest,s. Tlris is both a ncli-tica-]- frction and a racist rnisperception." (Gross tl:en sai/s, someti":es blaclcs vote for l..rh j-tes , 1J-ke Smrth, prtts the eart ionores ',rhai srou-l-4. -be a-one rappenincr ) 'ratinc ",rere the rc:rn ii 1s [.. us to fact and ,rice-r/ers&, anC sonetimes J:laclls are srtinq votes]l) (;i.ryain, ncte that Gross ::efore 't,re :torse -- l'le 'i1 iaCt t:rat is r,rl13lrg ilTnriaa.i i f, -fCial-'ll_CC_-. -19 9 -. , if R.aci aI pol-arization, 5 'l:ard tc see hcrrr !{r. Bradley becarne nat"ror of Los .incel es, uor 'tor.r intelliqent pol itici ans can conceive of backrnq him for the qoveinorsnap of CaLiforni a. npart frorn t::e artificiality of q=oup construction and lack of racial bloc voting, there are other reasons for a lacl< of proportionalitlz 1444) in e] ectoral -tresu1ts." (Cites lack of interest, resourees, etc.J "I'Ie have, too, to consider whether even if racia'|. block voting rlrere the norrn and 'rrere permissible , rt 'rrould be r..rorth protectino. . .. riie "rish for the di-vision tc breal< 4Lown.'l Te.stirnonw of l{enrrr L. Iularsh (t.tavor Richnond Va. ) ttllZlQ,."loneing to comments bv Senator East on proportionaL representation J) "Senator, I aopreeiate vour concern, and I knorv we all r+ant to reach the day trrhere race will not be a factor in the political process, that :^rhites will l:e e'l eeti-ng blacks and blacks will ,be el-edtino '..rhi-tes, which is happenino on some occasions in this ccuat::y, and rue want that to be the standard. I';'e are coi-ncr throuah a pericd of deaLincr '..rith a 1:i-storv r.rhere there has .been discrinination acrainst blaclcs in this countrv, anC rve are stiLl in that na-i aA. -rJu:4v,-{ , a a a r cruess frcm the point of vier,r of mino /-' )rrElf , (tt.l r*hen vou asl< for the riqht to participate in the poliiical orocess, tvhat you're askj.ng f or is a riqht tc subject Vourself to the trill of the majority, anr,rav, so r.rhen vou get elected ia rnost situations, 'Iou'=e trr,rtno to convinqs the minoritlr persons that t':e.7 shorrld rro a-'l-ong with vour -oolitical point cf R.acia'l oolari-zation, 7 !ta at.t So itts ver:/ inportant that ;as vou trlz tc oe'u yourself in a position to be a minoritv, to persuade the majority to qo alonct rqith vour point of viel, You should not be frustraied in that effort. In Vi-rc''nia, r*e iave I 51ack in '10 members of the Senate, 4 l:lacks in L00 i-n the i{ouse, even tnorrgh'.lerre 20 percent of ::re population. I{e have to fiqht and scrap to get thcse persons elected. .\nC if vou pass a bill that would frustrate us from getting that I bIack, or those 4 blacks out of LOO, and, l out of 40, then you are further frustrating-' the political prccess, and f know you tvouldn't want tc do that, but f'm just trying tc say that what ':erie'askinq for is an opportunity to use our ninority status effectivelY, and thatrs not askino .for a }ot. " (tlarsh seems to t,ry to sav that it's participation ,in the political proces.s thatts sorlcrht. If thatrs tlle rroiet of .the '.i11, the intent and gEtEg of whi te vote-rs in votincr for rlif ferent peopLe ' f:on blaclcs is irrelevant. ) P:cecarerl Statement of Dr. Edr.{ard J. ErLer (Uat'I Iltirnanities Ce ( orcPonent ) (5030 "... once political Dor,rer is concei-'led of in exclusivelv racial terms, the pressure to ::egard those interests in tl:ose same terrns '..ri1l- also become :-rresistable. One consequence wi.l-1 the the intensi- :lrcati-on of racial bloc votinqr. Legislatures, whether 'l oca1, state, oi national, '^/i11 f ind it diff icu1t, if not :-inr:ossible, to find a ecnnon around for the ,v,8.: SL+."A L<- Ma.c.{huos Racial polarization, I :iepresentative process that transcends irnmediate racial class considerations. " (Isn't he raall1z saying that j'i:'s best 'tii;r'i: trlacks an,l. other ninori ti-es are unrepresented? ! ) Febrr:arv 2 t9B2 Ooenins Statement bv i{atc\ (paoe 515) (.-Iatch makes a passina reference to racially polarized voting, referreC to in House report as factor in proof; he sinolv sal/s that racially polarized votinq, as :vell as a number of cther factors, trould be the"scintilla of cther evj-d.ence he sEfs-r^rould establish a section 2 viol-a- tion under the results standard. ) Testimonv of P:of . Susan A. McManr:s (univ. Of '{o'.rston) (paqe 543) F"" oroblern for state & l-ocal qovern- rnents rras been? "that the eoncepts r:sed bv the -l Jr:stiee Depart:nent have never been defined i-n an-v sort of clear anrl concise manner, partieularl-.I eoncepts such as racial polarization and bloc ./ctinq... " "One test tnat is often useC to determine rvhetlrer the minoritlz \/ote has been or r+il-l be dil-uteC is racial polarrzation. This, technicallv, cccurs :.rhen citizens cf cne racial cTroup uniforrn'1 v vote for one canrli:iate and citizens of anotrer raciaL Racial oolari.zatlon, 9 uniforml'/ vote for another. i'Ihile this sounds simple.enough, it reallv is verl: Cifficult to measure. " lfha qoes on to say ifs aLso unclear hor.r rnuch polarization is too *,r.hl1 v) "of course, the basic pufpose of the test is to d.eter:nine '.rhether raee is the primarv and exclusive determinant of individual voting ,lecisions across time in any given community.. Now this measure has severe i shortcorninrrs . " ti'icManus nentions: -- geographic dispersal of members of raclal groups (544) -- races that have more than trvo candidates -- snslsritlr as to what is "severe" po.Larization] "Another even more basic issue is r+hether racial bloc voting is the desired effect. Is the intent of the Votino Riqht.s Act to produee electoral svstems t-\at rer.rard racially segregate4 residentiaL patterns? That, of course, is a cduestion that t1e Concfress must 3p gr^l€f . As tre act has been applier!. thus far, t:re Jtrstice Department has qenerallv regarded as diLutj-ve any svstem that prorluces a leoisl-ative body whose members Co aot ref 'lect the qeneral- makeup of the population. fn other "rords, proportional representatj-on has been the basic test of effect, rather than the resoonsiveness of electeC officials, regardless of their race or ethnicitv. " (l,tcManus qoes on to say that the Conqress should not leave a vaque test in the Voting R.ights Act for the Justice Department to interr:ret. ft is eLear that she '+a.s failincr to distinrruish section 2 from section 5, forshe goest on tb enDhasize the need for :easonabLe t:aiLor-rt provisi-ons. ) lacial oolarization, 10 (547 ) Sen. :JATC:I. ... Coulrl You elaborat-e 'rpon vour notion t'i1at tr"le standard used b1"r t',1e Justice Departnent under .section 5 places a premium upon racial isolation and racial seqregation? u;. McM.\ITUS. ... As I pointed out in constructing racial polarization scores, the premium is on rdentiflring racially homogeneous precincts and using that as the test. The bottom line inference is that racial polarization, or having people in raciaLly segregated precinCts, i's tlre optimal solutj-on or the ideal, which I f ind verY hard to accept as a cltizen. Sen. IIATCH. Basicalllzr ''rhat vou seem to be savlncr is that r.ve are insurino Qhat nrav in[realitv be ccmfortable racial political chettos. l,I.s. !,[cMANUS. Exactly. ','trhen vou put such a oremiun o,n a test such a bloc voting scores and racial_ polarization scores, one can infer nothing else but that that is desired. Sen. HATC{. So those who are propc'sinq the change in section 2 actua1l1z malz be doing a lot of harm to ininority voters in this country. IIs. MCMAITUS. I think lrou are absolutely ecrrect. (lryain, thev interchange lsglg for bloc voting with the 5!5iIg for bloc votino. ) (I.[cl,lanus claims that Hispanics r.roulC be especialIlT hr:rt _beeause their residential 0atterns differ from that of blacks.) (548) Sen. :{ATCI{. Can rrou elaborate upon the reasons fcr rzour u.ncertainties abor:t r'rhat rac!aI bloc voting leaLlv is? For instance, ',rhat is :acially po]-arized RaciaI polarization, 11 ',rotins? How do we identify it? I'Ihat should its 1egal and constitutional siqnj-ficance be? ,". Mc!!AITUS. I,IeII, as I mentioned in my testimony, it is very difficult to decide or to determine, as a social scientist helping governrnents prepare statistics, exactlrT what is meant by racial voting and bloc votlng and ',rhat is severe. (f or example, Macllanus savs, !'.'han lookinq f or "racially homoceneous" precincts to determine how members of each racial group vote, is a precinct homogeneous if itts Civided 9O1"-LO%? '?O%-30:.6fl But is it Si.{"ery dif f icult t.r. come up r.^rith a consistent definition of what racial polarization is and ho'rr ]rou measure it. Aoain, I salz t-rat the hardest part i s calculatinq the scores for areas '.rhere vou have both groups and volr cannot identifrr homocreneous preeincts, particularl'I fcr llisoanics. Preoared Statement ( 551) (I,lacl.lanus reDeats her ief inition cf :r:acial polarization) savs there are four main unanst.rered-(555) [14ac]ianus truestions: -- hor,r to measure b6$c voting in nulti-candidate r1d6d ttrhart +-o do i-f there are no racially homogieneous orecincts? popul-ation has several minority qrouDs that vote {ifferentlv ruhat Ie*zel- of oolarization is "hishlv .sion:-f icant " l.J Racial ool-arizati on, l2 Testirnonv of. Joaqr:in G. Avila (Assoc. Counsel I'IALDEF ) (paqe 553) '"When the previous wj-tness @acuanus] discussed that, really, there \{ere no concentrations of Hispanics across the State of Texas, I take issue with that position. I also take issue with t}refactthatitisveryrlffficulttoidentifyor define raclalllz polarized voting. You ta]k to the minority communities in Texas. They knor+ 'vhat racial]-y polarizerl voting is. Thelr knor+ '.rhat it is r^rhen a person gces out to vote,a i{isOanic qOes out to,Tote and tries to qet access into the city council, an,:l vet the citv couneil is not responsive to the particularize'i needs of the l4exi-can-Ameri ean comlllu- nitv and \as not paved andv streets or prcvi'led anv kinc of municipal services to eertain areas. Therr knor.r '.r\at raciallv'' po]arizerl voting is when political onposition, such as in the citlz of Loclchart, takes our net{spaper ads a couple of ,veeks before the elctions and paints the mj-nority cand.idates seekinq election as being-raCicals in orC.er to brinct out $e llhite Anqlo r/o!e. They knor.r thtt'glltally polarizec voting is, i so I suqgest tnat if there is anv doubt in the prof essor's mind as to r'rrrere in f act racially ocLarized votinq exists an.1 rr'hether in fac+- llispanics are geograohicallY (564) .lisoersed t\rcuqhout the Btate of Texas, I rn'rite the professor to exami-ne her censLr.s statistics. rr (A'riIa sa\ts that racial polarization -o1us disproportionate impact ras net/er, rr!![6r]t more, 1e<1 a court to strike an eleet-jon scheme.) 3,acia1 Pclari zat'i on, 'l 3 FJ ( 5 "I ) laecause of l'lobile' "Our only message to the .lave in the Sout'rr,rest is brinq these l arusr.tits. I'Ie have to te1l that to our people; our constituents in Beeville, Tex. , for instance. fn Bee County and the city of Beeville, you have close to 50 pereent Hispani-c population. The reason vou do not have siqnificant minoritr/ reoresentation !n the city ccuncil of Beevil] e is because of raciallv poLari zed votinq. In a,lCition to that, '{hen rTou harre raeiallv polarized 'totinq, rrcu have a lc'.rer elrqi'cl-e voter oogulation, 1-otIer registration rates for ,'{ispanics, and there is discrimination in that instance, 'vhen the city cor-rnciI and the elected cfficj-a1s continue to iqnore the neerls of I{ispanics." ( luesti-oning bv Senator East: ) (573) Sen. Sasto ... I tirink thi-s proportional reDresentation, t:1is ef f ec"s t'est, this ctltarantee, is qoinq to fracrment and polatLze and elininate harmonv in .\merican nolitics. AIl cf it ooes ba'cl< to what I think again is a misreading os- the l5th lmenCrnent, rvhich is the rioht of eac\ and everv one of tls to reoister anC 'rote. gr.1f !.r€ cer:tainlv orrq\t :rot to reaC it to cr:arantee the riqht 6€. oartlc'-rlar ethnic, :elicri-crrs, or racial orcupinqs to hol:1 cff ice. ilhat rlo rrou thinl< of it? I1-:. IVIL;\. I'Ie11, f :1o not thinl< cur position ira's ever been to have a guaranteed ninority seat in anv eleete<l bodv. Our organization interprets ti:e LSlh AmenCment ---tve used to, anvaray, prior tc i.lobiLe -- as :rot onl.r toucring upon Dhysical access to the polls br:t a] so tc incumbent situations r+''lere rzou 'lave an e] ection structure ( 5 "4 ) tlat di lute.s or n'i ni rnizes the inoact s intent stan:lard) J i{ispanic cornrnrrnitJ/ tnat vre that 'rre can no lonqer S.acial- -oolarization , L4 of rni-noritlr votinq strencfth r\'hen t're rninir:nization cr CiLution of that \lote is ]:ase"l on raciallrr polari zed voti:rcf and is basecl on a \istorv of votinc, .iiscrimi- nation anrl rliscrirnination r:rithin a political sr:bdi-vlsion. @e, re not af ter proportional representaticn, and I^I'1ite ha6 no'' such stanctari) lione cf the ca'ses J t\at !.rere involved in Texas or other jurisdictions r,rith '+hicn I am famj-Iiar even had incorporated .:+ithin their rerned./ the notion of a proportional reoresenta- tion scheme. Rather, the focus rEas on avoiding the fraclmentation of a cohesive mrnoritlz votin61 ccmmunity in the context of raciallv polarized votino. so the amendment to section 2 tuould not raise the noti-on that r.re are seekinct to quarahiee m:-noritlz seats. In fact, aII of cur lit:-oation in the South- ',rest has :rever used that as a basie Drem'se. The i:retn;-se has al-'sa1r5 l:een to trv to preserve or protect the integrity of a cohesive minoritv"t votincr eommunitlr in the context'-of racially t:olarized voti-ncr. /in Texas, there are 3 majo.ritv i{ispanic '{istrlcts,- ' \r- represented r:v Anolos.J So we are not talkinq about guaranteeing the riqht of minorities tc be elected; t're are tai-1<ing aboat m:-norities havinq an irnPacrrt into the ool-itical orocess and tc make sure that impact is not being di-minished because of racist concerns. P:epared Statement (532) (,lvila notes that the Justi-ce Departrnent f aileC to fi.!.e an o'lriection under .section 5 to drst=ict in Texas trrhich) "clranmvents the pre.lominantlrz llispanic areas of 5an Antonio... Extensive erri-rlence coneerni-nq tre existence cf raciallv oolarized. votinrt !','as .ororr!-deC t,o tlre Der:artrnent of Jt:sti-ce." raciallv polarized voting, 15 (590) "A revier.r of voting rig\1s decision prior to Mobile will reveal that the Courts focused'on the impact of a given electoral scheme on minoritlz voting strength, ilot on the electability of rninoritlr candidates. For exanplE^in Kirksev v. BoarC of Supervisors of llind Countv, 554 F.2d 139, L52 (Strr Cj.r. 1977 ) (en banc), cert. den., 434 U.S. 877, the Court held that a plan adopted by a Court should not divide a cohesive minority voting area in a community where raci ally polarized voting exi.sts. " Testi:nonv of Steven Suitts (5xec. Dir.,Southern R.eqion Council ) (.2uestioning blr Sen. EasE) (e Oz) ltr. Suitts.... Thr fact is that with the siift of populaticn in North Ca=olj-na sj-nce the 133Os Cratrincf at-Iarqe slTsterns, esDecially in netrcpolitaa areas'and in the seacoast area, did not prevent someone frcm ooing to the baLLot box, but because of the oractt:es of l:loc voting in manlz of those ccmrnunities, it diC bar blac'l< citizens to lce ab'te to ]ra'le that vote counted, -.p:st as if it rrere tantamount to .someone saving, Yes, you may mark trat ballot, llllt no, f will not put it il the baLLot box. Fe'oruar',r 2 , 1982 Testrmon'r of Prof . John Bunze'! (Iloover Inst. ) (cpoonent) (553) Sen. HATC-{. Professor Bdnzel, the i{ouse rep?t'A racial-1rr l:olari-ze4 votina, l-5 on li[.?. 3I]-2 states on Pacre 30, ft 'r,rouId 'ce illegal for an at-iarqe el ection scherne fcr a particuLar State ct local ':oriy to pernit a block votinq majority over a sul:stantiaL period of tirne cqnsistentJ-y to defeat n:noritv candidates or CandlCates identif ied :v'i th the interest of a racial or language ninority. Hcrv r./ould t,re be able to deternine tvhether a candi-clate was " iCentif ied rrith the interests of a racial- or langr:aqe minoritv"? Mr. BUHZEL. ,:^ietl, that is one of the real problgms. ... PreoareC Statenent (559) "The presumDtion is that rninori-ties "rill- be abLe tc increase their politrcal- st:engtir anC influence onl1z if Conqress changes Section ? of the r/otinq R.iqhts Act so that blaclcs and i{ispanics iave_ nore tj:an ecuaL ac:ess to the baLl-ot box. ?hev must somel.:cr,r be ass'-r:ed cf equal electoral r€slll+.s- The center cf concern 'rouId mo\re frcn e',! irinat:-ng raciallv notivated discriminat-r on in {ee votinc .process to endorsing a theorlz of cr:oup :epiesenta- lion -,hat '.roul-C Dusn cur pol-iti-cs c"loser to rnstitu- ti cnalizino a svstem cf. .singLe-rnernlaer 'Li stri-cts an.l. racial t:1cc '/oti-ncl . " Testinr:v cl Hen. -lenrrr Ki:]"sev ( S:ata Se:1. -- liiss. ) (5?0-?L) (D':;i:rg questioninq bv Sen. l'l,etzenbaum, i(i:kserz cites results of a poll taj<en of t'rhite voters in Jaclcson after defeat of a referendun proposino elinination of at'large votincl svstsm.) "The noll- ancno 'rhi-'e voters shor'JeC that 5l- percent cf those '..1'ro vcterl to retain at-lar<le elections did 30 for cne or more racial reasons.... " racialll/ Dolarized 'loting , L7 (33:L it n:cr:rt cause racial tension 35"L -- ',rou1d encouraoe black part:-cipaticn 409/, --- n:-aht nal<e it possib!-e for blacks to serve on citv ccunci'l 337'", -- n:q\t result in rnv beincv reDi:esenterl l:v a Derson of another race. ) P:eoareC Statenent (l?il "In the state of lrti-ssissippi, because of :-ts hlstcrv of discrimination, raciaL l:loc votins, :na-,iorit1' vote requirement, -orohibition on singit'6- shot votiag, and discriminatorlz partiz politics, 3t- larrte elections remain a Eajor met5od of discriminating aoainst black citizens." SuJ:rrnj-ssion bv Ki?ksev entitled "Questions and tnsvers clthe Section 2 "Restlts" Stan':tard n4 c 1OQ?v.: 9a Lrria (-C7) l-;:ot"s thai in i{hite v. ?,egester, district court fcr:nd, inter aI:-a,1 "a pattern of :acj-all'r polarized -l ' ':otinc slro'.ri-ro t\at rrace is stiil aa imoortant issue in Be:<ar Countv and that because of ii, llex:can-Anericans are frozen into .?ernanent ooLitical nrnorities destined for constant Cefeat at the hands, of the eontrollincr political majorities.r" festimonv of !.Iichael Levin (cu}trY-P\i1. ) (oDponent) ( T2o ) " sta1l nore ominouslv, tfr" f-s"""e] report {eclaras that an election scheme r'rould be i1Ieqa1 if it unjntentionallv perrnitted the :ecrr:Iar rlefeat cf 'm:ncri tv candidates or canri.idates identif ied .riit': the i-n-ccrcst cf- a racial- c'c lanrruage rninoritv. r raciallv polarized'roting, 18 idho sha1I deciCe a minority's interest independently of hos,r i t votes? E,esponse: that's exactlv tfhat shqul-<!t.- be done -- look at r.rhether minoritr: and majority voter vote differentlY]] Some blockS, like Jetus,.J regularlv vote aoainst what others rrroul-d see as their interests. " (Levin makes the same on p. 738. ) Prepared Statement ( ?39) "Even if the interests of the oroups covered ):y the Voting Riqhts Act coincide with their self- interest, iS it not Sias to guarantee their interests and not those of other crrot:ps? In anv case, anyone whc thinks that voter interest follow.s color as if German, Je'eish, Italian anC hr.A.S.P. blocs will autornaticall-rr eoalesce into a uniflf:-ncl'.vhiteness just to oopose blackness is attributino to the ordinary voter a Dreoccupation with race more usually found in lTazi propaganda. " ( I ) resi ) Submi-ssion entitled: "The t/otinq Ricrhts Act in Alabama: :\ Current Legal Assessment ( :'79) "A In'rnlter of l\Iabama's colitrcal subdj-'.zi sions are co''.ze-rne<1 J:r; electron l arvs r,r\i gh Lv intent ci effect 4.r1ute t1e vote of miloritY electors. Perhaps the nost ne-rzasi'le of these is t:e at-l-arf,e sr/stem cf alecticn. Ir eountie.s cr m'..tnieipali-lies r'rhere lctaClls :onSti--ute .Less t"ran a na-icritrz cf t:le a'Ion{-,-r*rta anr-r. racial-Ly poi-ari zed rtetincI occurs, iJ..qv', t--T.rs eleetio:: sr.rstem in most cases results in fa'i '!ure point in his prePared statement raciallv Po.ia::izeri. rzotinq, 19 f or minori t:z candidat€s. '! (,loint Cneter for Pol i tical?estirnour of }rrnanrl De:J-n-g! (800) (tn g,iqefielc countv ease (Mccain v. Lvbrand) l:he court said:) ,nThe?e is sti1l a lonq historrr of raci.al Ciscrimination 1n all Ereas of l-if,e. There is l:1oc votr-ng b'z the whites on a sea'! e tais cor:rt has never loefore observed, and all arlvances nade by the l:lacl<s have been under some tllpe of cou'rt order. ..' If l:lack candicates lose in the normal give-anc-take of the po1:-tical arena, then the courts may 116g inter- fere.Under::o.theoryofthelar'rcanacourtdirect a unite tc vote for a black or a'black to vote for a ',rn:.te. llo''.'ever, i-f there is oroof , and there :s amp'le proof :-:1 this case, that the balcl< candi- dates tenc to l-cse not on their nerits but solel-.I l:ecuase of ti:eir race, then the cor:rts can onl-v f :-nd tbat t?:.e hl-acl'* 'roting strencrth has been dil';ted ::nder the St,rster,l and 4.eclare the Sairne :.:ncc-stituti-ona1. r i.l:th a.ll- :l-r-re respect, f thinl< that i5 r'rhat the i.Ih:r-te staficar.r. is aborrt. That is r,rhat,t're re.sults test is about. T'bat !5 r'rhat sect.i cn ? is about. T:rat is t::e stanC.arrl "re ha^-. That Ls the stanrlard :'e r,'culd lri:e +-c a:o !:ael< to. " ?repa:ed. Statenent (3.19) "I l:cpe :-: 1I3s beomce clea: I3r'r n6r,'7 ti':'at' arnended Secti or 2, l rlce i'Ilta+,e v._:leqe.ste:, aOpli-es .aiv in tl:at snal I catector'/ of pJ-aces 'rl:ere tne::e :s -1r -l'.rrctic::j rri ( 3?0 ) s'rttem of pol:-t:-cs f o: .-:ri rorit\7 Studies ) raciall.,r oo-'l-a.::-=e'] votinq, 20 rrote:::, lr'lei:e t.:rere is alread'r Seve::e ::acial div'ision, ani. r,r\ere :t l-s sinp1.7 impossil:l.e for minoritirtoters to rar"'e an',,/ s:-snifiCant opoortunitV ::nrler the electi- on sr.rstein a.s i t i.s . " (-c21) "-1 related point (o t'.:e notion that sect:-on ? is just tc create an opportrrnit'r for partrcioation) ti:atsevera1:ritnesseshavemace:!.sthesltcoestion t'1at to a'll-cr': evidence of rac-ia.l- rsolaticn or extreme pola;ization to constitute a factor in leternininq r'r\eti'ier the electoraL svstem l-5 discrini- nat,ort/ r.:ould- sonehor,r ccnstitute apcroval oi ool-ariz&5,i on cr r.roulC foster racia.l- rlr',rision. Sectton 2 , of ccr:rse, r'riIl apply onlv in t,:lose pLaces r'rhere tlere :-s an extraordinarlr anount of division, and to say'1 that cieating a remedy for e:<clusLon l*ou1d foster Ci'ri si on is Lil<e salzinc that a thernometer cai.tses f ever. t' ?esti:n on'rz of ifon. F. Jarnes Sensenbrenner ( ?39 ) Sen. G"-\SSLEY, Please 1ool.. at the last sentence o:l -Daare 5 of voltr testi-ncn'r, and then f r.rani tc read f rcm page 30 of the i{ouse reDort, the Last sentence on paoe 30. I qtre.ss rav pornt is f ccnsider that tl:e t!\to sentences Co not sc:lare. I: t:ev are intendeC to, I '.rou1C l-ike to haveyou exolain ii or if t-'rere is an inccnsistenc',/, t,ren exo'lain that as t,relf . You sdy, "Even the I{ouse-passeC bill's strongest supporters :,ri11 state it is not its 'i ntent to ,l.ecide r.rho *liL'l r'ri-n electi-ons but l:tst tc nal-.e Eure that the rules apply fairly to aL1 tire participants. " T':en cn Dac"e 30 f :om the :{ouse reDc:t , I r:itote, 'r it 'rer:'!C. be il-l-eqal- fcr an at-1ar,:e el-eeticn scheme fcr RacialIv polarized votinq, 2L a oarticul-ar State or local bodlz to permit a bloc- rroting majcrity over a substantial period of time corl- (390) sistently to defeat minority candidates'or canCidates identified with the interests of a racial or languaoe m5-noritY. " Mr. SBNSENBREITNER.- I trould draw Vour attentj.on to the two paragraphs r+hich precede the paragraph from r.rhich you read in the House comdittee report. Sen. GRASSLEY. I have alsoread those, too' Mr. SENSENBRENNER. I think that the sentence that vou have read has to be read in the total context of the discussion that the House Judiciary eommittee made relevant to amendments to section 2 of the act. Q,rot." lanouaqe sayino,/$P$F"P€i"".r representation i s not in itself a violation of section 2, nof is there a rioht to proportional representation as a reme<iv.] Tl:en it goes on by saving this is not a ne\{ stan<lard, and talks about various other factors sr:ch as single- shot votinq, a polaritv of votincf qroups where people cast the:-r votes along racial llnes, and the Iike. (392) Sen. i{-a.TCI{. Jin, what in vou opiaion is the resufts test? Speeificallv, t hat does j-t mean? 1..{.i. SENSENBREI{.1TER. The results test is if the :esult of the procedure that is under challenge so comoletely shr:ts out minoritY groups from the election pi'ccess that thev do not have a prayer of being eLected or taliing their case to the voters of tnat particular area or state. and having a chance of rvinning. r think you Save io look at the totality of circumstances in order to srrSta'i-n a section 2 I awsuit. sen. HATCH. i{or,r would lrou make that determination? G'ive me some illustraticns of hol'r 'rrou n:ct1tt nake sueh a Ceternination. raqial Iy polarized votinq , 22 j I'{r. SENSENBRE}INER. I nould say in the case of s$!!g, if there isno way that a minority person could be elect4d to the commission in l*Iobib, based upon the way the situation eras set up, that would be a case, Second, Lf there was a -- Sen. IIATCH. Let me see if I understand that; you are saylng that if the most qualified person runnlng I*1r, SEIISENBEENNER. Yes, could not be eLected merely becuase of the color of his slcin. Evcc-rpls %'n g5 Racn'rL ?o\am'zah'on OY ' 'vrq slofuine'vt* o? Se'ngJov 7w;n tAulq .t.ho mcr rmnedlato oblective -of .h." aection-fs-ffiIE-tUel iiffisill*"Jfr'*"""HtrJj.jiH''H:ff1:tLH:'fi ; inH*:ffrff ffi :3l"r;il":lr,*x:liI#r,ffi:H,*3 ffi t#;ilffi [,e"li*d;;1,**,*"Slf ]ffi*,?rffi:t ll* gruIntrtJlid, and that they lrag nothing whateo€ver to d; ffih;;t;osidi"itions. Never inind that the casa against at' lm"":LtgJ,l,*xi'*,rx*r"tlJn"#,l,'*"1?'-ffi:f;ilii,f,ii ;;ifihlt6;;;"il*""i irrritca, and that rhe influenc. Iliricli ilh-i-i;"d *il[-t5!t .* concentrat€d in electorallv safe and comfortable pglitical ghgt!)9: fir!.;ffiil;ffifii q;"t "" th"t t[9 '.ryutla-^t"p] ^I9Sg- b^Ti5P tr,i'tliltif,rii"i' ;a:b-rh" voting fughts Act is totauy .r _{q;ilh;fi;i.ii; ttii tt"- c"osiit.rfioo las^ueeg -qg,g$.:l-*5ffi 'Rffffiffifi;;;;lh;"d; - Ei, " i. m'a of Hrcatbt 34 iil; t\"il-Bli[t" [fii-ie64. it^-i;tad" *itrr ttre ngtion t]rat Rep iiliiitiro"-6*"- tt iir atte*isace to individtral citizens, not to ;fri;;;tl-il'[t"c". ii is .i'odds *ith t!r" moet tundarnental ideas ilrff "i'"rliil-ina--tociJ*tr[o"9""n..1t'Indeed,tuS":,q^!-ry-*&tr;;il;ii6" i" i ii&t o"*"tti-'i"- p-.tg{t{f !19criDinatory r€EultE" is purest orweuianiem ln radrcauy EranarorrE- ilililililirit-"r airc-"i-i""rlon .ry_l.a decisionmalcing procea 0 )a5 lgto an end or an outcone Sb4u^i o? B<njam*'' +h"tT tod.r r "raaulca" a.ac,rlnorlEy r'9r"'ncrGloo vltl ll'L'ty b' r trc'or 10 .acrbllrhlng Eh.G ln .llcGloo sch" hl' ' dlsqt1llD'rory 'f['cli hfr'v'r' alnorlty raPraaaoarcloo lr oo3 Eh' crotrrl focul of 'h' lnqulr' &d ln 'c torcucx. uy mG b. a trcGor r3 'll' tlod'r r "r'rul'r" 3"8' th' ferl 9ot!c rt.crorata sl'GGt. eht3' c'Dd1d't'' Tb' lrllur' of Gh'G Prrdcluocly bLrcL dlasrlcs Go alsct a blacl crqdld'G' ' elchouc rr' ' c'rlrlnl' rculd rct l"d co | ^ - vocto3.Graolch. noG rh. 'b''Ilt, .Ircrrd. th.r. ry b. llac'rcu. " l' lh' cl" il-*I*n cootr...lour Dt.rrlcE of ud J.r3.y (D"-rodloo), sh.r. . brek ) ad ,aqs E o > : :,t!ag :.. I ia9 :aa q9 qq6 oc i!: tl aa! iaa 3X A 9tt 4< C ;!oIcgais A : /ll r .., sl r ,l il : -l -l c !l ilr !l :li J ;ti \1r ; g .r a ,! I .. e .. d. !i a a . a; E ! o . - ai ! o x u c 60 E < < a o oi u!aaaJoa-d {2ao..a e a O a ! . et O i r ! I e a a o, t ! ) . ( a ; .. J -5 uaiuarA U .. L L .. I r O J a ao !lto.a{'.qi- : i I " : 8 & " , € : :i; r3t"8.oq€€i"i'3 I I a r.. I a a ; ! r I ' 6 a , a t i a du < ,. q s o I ao a , ! I ! :- Q a .- I s a{ a i A C a € ! a .a I I C eg a , . o t aa ! < a I a I s ,a c k s c os e 9 s ! > a !t - , a ;. i o o r a a{ E a a q a uaa q -! L u r ! a 9. o a o a !a ! I O t ! a ! oL l, ! a .. o , a !t t 5 e a a a ! a o u ! rt . u ca t € a s . a qsU Lro9la9odr O q I a ! I t qt ! s s a a e i ! O L ! e e 6 a i 6 a a id u g d e v a I a k a 9 t a a i- q a s a a { I I u i o i 6 ! 9r .! a d ,! ! o a al a a o . ! a 9 ! a kt. r U C I s I a a ad I L O a e , a ! r{ o a a a5 { t r L L o as qs , s u a a, t c o ,u - ra o a o c e Lu 5 3 a € > O ar o u! I o a < a a a e o L qi e a > a , ga r u t , r as € aa o s u n r 6i ! t I * L st o ! a E a i a a o t d q t ! rr i < a q I e oi h g { a ! g 4! s I o I r r ! o u a O r € , a a a s i a o e ;e c ! d o I eu < ) t i c o ad o s o r > oa , !. i o < a d.. J q q l t ! r i oa a a i tn ar ! t o a u cD ! ud ! a > s 9t av (, .! o { r > * > O a > O > ! i ! a < M s , qa i uo to t q a a a r as a s o d o.J s *i oa , q { o s a t r 4 c L a I s ! i{ 4 2 ' a { < ao u a I o rv e os ra ! c o E { a ca , ao a d io a ,i i6 4 O r ! a t t , > r { r t I d! ca a5oat!a) O d ced itsoe a60 l!99A a T E U O L lta.Aott tqa rio,a a! aaa< a iI9J'aaL ta a o' ot !oa taait €!aou aht d.oluao aoa aaa i<ur6 at aoL a aan !9d ,A I ,oa !t ! atF aa a> ua!L ,rta < ale {i1o ata ,aro-"! ao C U 'Aoao iari 3!.caa !i> s aco 3 3E < caoa osatea > tE r a,aaon l::i !iE o le 6!oao- rltaau {o< d ;il: atka ttoE l vE a > s6 aro s.i lr aeea oaoa > ti! 41eo uql.io cat{ !rdi tttd !uro eto!a!a /. ., E 69 qoa o< > a ao aao{ a> 4 aO !. Q LE a 'G U ' a45ataa€a3t(ea,aoaaittuadttao r{E-Es.s-gex'5 d frH ,; (oc^'A ?ola^'nh',*u 3 3* +e/n\!r^* o{ V,'lma l,lto,,rh'nc- S. L992 r,lcu1,1 incorporate a ":esr-l1t" s{:anCarC in Section 2 and therebrr clarifv the l/otire ?.iahts Act !:y "o."i5'7ing i-ts ad-option of pre-l,lobile standarCs of eviCence. Usino the result standard, ':ict:rns of Cis- crinination ',.rould be requireC to sho'.'l "ai1 agoreqate cf objective factors, such as a history of Ciscrimination affec-"j-ncf t:e riq5t to ',rote, raciallll pclellzed votincr iLiscrrninator.l i svstern, suclt as at-larcte elec-'ions, a majorrty vote reauirement, a prohibition on sinqle- shot voti-no, and numbereC posts 'vhich enhance the cppor+,unity f or Ciscri-nination, and rliscri:ninatory slatino or the failure of - ;nincr:-ties to win partv ncrnination,s." See il.1. P'eport l(o. 9l-22'i , 97ti-t Ccnn. Ist Sess. , at 30 ( Sept I5, 1931) . This "tctaLi-tv cf cireumstances approach 'uas endor:ed b't.' t'.re U.S. Supreme Court in -'Jh:te v. Refiester, 4L2 U.S. 155 (I97?), a :-anffi iecision severeLv ercded brr l"lobile. p.3o5 P 3ob alcritra &Ericsu ars ercluded from tlre po[tiffi votilt itt combhatioa witi metlrodr of election that minimirs aDd, in -.i'y corq crgl orrt their vots. A ruultorientad Soction 2 ir crir'cd to our ability to-addru tbir porrruive type of diecri.oination. Tbe pruvalaaco of racially polarized voting cannot be over-emphaaize<L "It ia a git uegioa rhsrc, whon candidrte of difrerront raoc ars runoing for tllo eano offico, thr_-vglcrr_-w{l !y aod- lqrae y{q fgf the glndidat4 of thoir own racs." City of Rorn v. U.8, a?2 F. tlupp 22r O.D.C. rgl9), Ef4 r00 S. Ct. 16{8 (1980). W}rea-cohbinedrith an othsruilo neutral oetlrod of eletioa, such as an at large election, uun- b.rtd pda, or mqiority-vote rcquinment, racially polarized voting can Brrarant€o ltut e minority candidato rill-not bo ol€ct€d, unls the candidatet race -mate up frr moru th.n bslfofthe populatioa. . Rrcidly polarir.d.voting in Torae.erten& thTuqhout_the Etare. l.€ttoro of objec- tioa to propcod yoting chango. under Soction 5 ol the Votins Rights Act aro hot irucd unlc tlrere ir evideaco of racially polarized votiag. The 86 lettarr iaaued .ilco lyl6 bear witas to the pncvdenco of polarized voting.rr h addition, nuslor- our rtudie of local Terae slectioar in which elctorr votad overvhelminclv for can- didrtr of their own raca in Novembor l98l wers preeented during a triil-cballeng. iDg tb€ reai*rlcting of the 23rd Coo$sioDsl Disthct ia Teraar. - t gtdrtioo.qanot chargo the waj pople vote; our hope in amending Section 2 to ?*a'rl Pol .^'= oh,.n I Tcoh'rvronq # P..rlh J')-hv enl*;a (.3t+ rTfr-ould like to quote the League of Women Voters of Georgi,a, whic.h eaid. , The Voting Rights Act hag b6n ths mct far-rnsching, benoficial piece of qirdl-'- .right legislsiionlhat hae come along ia receat hirtory. It-Eud Ue erteiaoa.Wdar,c'Ue-ing araSg€d, kiclring 6a6l scrcrniig, itrto tho 20th-cenurry, but therc cea bo ao other ray of doirg iL Attitudc toward blactr have not chnnoeL We rtill havr eother ray of doing it toward blactr have not cha4od We rtill havr e aad rcoovo tha frn of tba bl*Lr rho Adding my own wordg to thae of the Georgia league, in claing, I must emphasize the league's belief that at a time sr[ss mnny ooF ered jurisdictiong arc still marked by racially polarized voti44agt- r.rn,s; unoquan aro o EEEtr-nt aitempts by State and local-offrcials to';8ko discrihils- tory changee in voting and election prccedur.eo, there is little evi- dence that covered jurisdictions are ready to accept full miaority political participation without the effective protectiono of tlts act'a epecial provisions. firee that are ready, thoee tlrat do not continue to diecrimiaate, thoee that do remove barriers to voting aad elec- tion participation, thee that eagage in outreach activities to make regiatration in voting mora aoceraible to rninepity citizenE, will .peat the crit€ri8 set forth in the bailout etrtion of S. 1992.