Brief for the United States as Amicus Curiae Supporting Appellants

Public Court Documents
July 1, 1985
Cite this item
Brief for the United States as Amicus Curiae Supporting Appellants preview
Document text

The following text has been generated automatically during the document scanning process. It may contain errors, omissions, or incorrect formatting. Please refer to the PDF document if this text is not usable.
Download

By downloading, publishing, or reusing the Materials outside of the Website, you hereby confirm and attest that you have read and agree to the LDF Archival Collection Terms of Use linked below. We draw your attention to the following:
For those Materials owned by LDF, your use of the Material outside the Site is solely for one or more of the following (the “Permitted Purposes”):
Non-commercial research and private study;
Teaching, scholarship and instruction (including distance learning);
Non-commercial print and non-commercial online use;
Criticism, comment or news reporting; or
For people with visual disabilities (See Section 121 of the Copyright Act).
For those Materials not owned by LDF you understand that:
- It is your responsibility to determine whether the way you plan to use the materials falls within the copyright exception of Fair Use.
- For any use outside of Fair Use, it is your responsibility to seek and obtain all required permissions from any existing rights holders.
LDF hereby grants you the right to use LDF owned Materials for the Permitted Purposes without seeking further permission from LDF.
If you publish or redistribute any Materials (including excerpts and quotes), you must include a credit line and/or proper citation to the source of the Material. However, you may not use the name of LDF in any manner which creates any false association between you and LDF or that incorrectly implies any sponsorship or endorsement of you by LDF.
NOTICE: Uses that do not comply with these Terms or that do not fall under Fair Use (or another exception) may make you liable for copyright infringement.
Read the full LDF Archival Collection Terms of Use Here.
I agree to the terms and conditions for use of this content.
If you would like to use this content in other ways, contact us at .
Date is approximate.
Matter
- Gingles
Case
- Thornburg v. Gingles
U.S. state
- North Carolina
Collection
- Case Files
Taxonomy
Identifier
- 24f97084-e092-ee11-be37-6045bdeb8873
Cite this item

Case Files, Thornburg v. Gingles Working Files - Guinier. Brief for the United States as Amicus Curiae Supporting Appellants, 1985. 24f97084-e092-ee11-be37-6045bdeb8873. LDF Archives, Thurgood Marshall Institute. https://ldfrecollection.org/archives/archives-search/archives-item/2656fc38-ed91-4ca4-8281-9a58a3be3a38/brief-for-the-united-states-as-amicus-curiae-supporting-appellants. Accessed December 04, 2025.

Copied!
    ilHrru=r* GH rr thi"lrrrtil ryqrl-r1 :1,- -1. 
..e-; . r.- ..-. - - . i -|.-. .-. '.- .:,,_:,. 1-.'.,'-i..,f.11.'j;. r,'l'i 0'crorgcTmrq'1985. . - --::: -:ji;*';:t

tiiiii-iiti{:i#Iffi'#:a;: fi *'Ilrifi#i**
- .-,'::i;iif=*i.i,;:|r.-,r.::1.ir:;i,i:.'..:;i;-- r--.:; -.- -:.::':..;-i.r...:-i.,"::ri....ij,;:;:i1-ir#

r:i:;il:,gi.,;ji::iS*;il;:i.-:';.'.'i:AJ.'i ':i -*:I.:aji;i"';.U:ii:ij::tffi
.-;--:io..-:l..aii:-].;r-r::-:.-.i:i.'-\'"'-'ir ',t'. -.1 ;..:.i:,t-#i=iiri;.;i;ir;:r$:
: ; -:':' :1 il..e,.:..::.', t':-i j,];'.lBjts; Goreips, Br rr-.: t' , . -.:l;''.'i;::-,;n1:;:.r- .;.:.i;.'.ffi1i: +;iif::l;r:iia=.'---]":;"1tlaEE= l51a'(i!! t'sr 5r- '''"..7,1i7i.i:il;:1"-'-:.,.:',fl

: ..;..',.,:{.rt:+r{t-'-::'',"1i:r]--':'-':t;.:'"; 
t;;,i;.;i,:i-' : ;;:;.-;.itr:'..'...:.;*<t*;=i:t;jilfti;;;E

':ilit*,Fi+i#r+1,;;x...- .,:ffi ;r';irllllt*I-t*:l'#$i
, 
-:iilt-Ej:Ai Aip;i,rzotss wrno'seas otsrrucr *-YBT . -ll:=*H

,,ii:i:;r;;iir;-Y:tr:rf',,y!ry:':-q-rer=,.sf::ili.i;i:: j-,i.,i#
--1.i; :"^il;:.".;-:1t-::,::.:i..t, ;*..'..i"r.:, .i,t:#' ::-i "i-':-1.;1.,., -..j, - --.- r ':'..{^::i',iit:

_..i:l,,{:{:'ri!;::i;1,51ii;ii.'.:.fi.-.ij, ,'.1;ii.;; -i,:jii--;;;-r:i-,'.i*.i;i.,...;g: ;,13,; ;:;ir,2.;'!iiy.:-i-.:-';i 
";F).''=; '-1.{-,: :]__:'. -_ i' :=:, ,-;,.,-'..:; ' 

''.,:-.j.";,f*l.Sj

; '?;-'f'??!, .11'l;--ro /rrraran qrrppoprrNc. ApPtE"AIlIlS : . . ;=';.{'.:i.''.1.ri!r=:5-*,5r.ffi ,:S::tf, "-frriT,i-+;. j;i,#
-{+53,ry .-.iN 1i,if,,:1tj:;;1i}; "'' t::1,', :; i- ;: ;! lf:ltl,ii., Iri;:-:, i: .L:':q::'-;.:

.--.-
r-- : .:r'a.i

(202) 635;U77



Qtllls'rt(lNS l',ltDsltN'l'!El'

l.wtrelhertherlls[r'icLctlttrIcot'rr:etlytottsl.rtte'tl
anierrlerl Scction Z of l.ha Vo[irrg ltighl.s Acl. -rrf l!,{ili,
42U.S.C.l!)?S,trsilrv:rlitltl'ingcct'tttittlnttl[i-tnetttbet
r"gurr*rr" rlisl,l.lcl,s lrr wlriclr rniirority clrnrlirla1es hnrl *

ilt;"; opporl.rrrrit,y l,o p:rll'icipnte in the clector:rl t)roccss'

[r-tf,. gi.n,,no that thcr.e wns ,o guaru*[ee tlr:rl, rni'orl-

ii"t t uitl,t cnjoy l.lro contlnttcd eleclornl success gtltll'rul-

teerl bY "8:lfe" rlisl,ricls'
2. Whel,lrer rnclnl bloc volltrg exists as t ntirlter of

' law wlteltever less thnn 60% of lhe wlril'e vot'et's c:tst

bnllols for n minorily ennrlirlnte'

(r)



'rABLl4 ()lr coNTltrN',l's

tttermt of ilro Uniterl Slul'es

Stnlelrrur[ ----

Conclttslon - --- -

TN III,Ii: OII AU'TIIORI'I'TI'S

Cnses:

Beet'v. llttilad Slcfi"'r,426 {''S' l:10 " '- ' ' " ' l7'itl
lllack Votllrl v. trlcl)ollotrgft', l-166 F'zd I ''' 'l'l' 24' 28' il$

Row Corrt. tl. Cottstlrnarc llniorl ol llttilcil 'Slole'r'
ftc., Nir. 82-1246 (Apr' 30, 1084) ' " 18' l9

Illarlc.s Y- Rapides lh'islr I'olice' 'lro'il' 608 F'2rl

1109...... " '-"'-'10'2G'33
llrcoksv- Alktitt, No' (1C82-80-Wl(-0 (N'l'' Miss'

Api. l0, l$84), nl['rl, No' 83-1866 (Nov' lil'
to'sal' - Ztt

lln:*ayv.Oliue,',trG6 F' Srrpp' l4?3--"-'-"""""' "-'" ll
Ciiv ilouncil v. I(alt:hnll, cct't' tlenletl' No' 84-02?

i.l,,no 8, lgSl'r) """" 
- -"""" 

2l

Cil'g ol I'ockhat'i'v' llnilttd Slolcs' 't60 t''S' 126" ' l'l
i;ittt ,f Noltila tt. Boliart, {4G U'S' 66 " " . "lrnsrirrr
Cify ol llontalt.llnitailstalcs, '146 U'S' 166 ' ' " 3

naiia v. Corisort, 663 ll.zd gzit -'- "-' '- '"""""'lg'26'28

I'ngo

I

I

6
ttrl,rorltrcl,lolt trtxl stttnlnnry of nr;Ettttrettt -."""-"

Argttmml:
'l'ho rlisln'ltL collt't t:t rolteously hckl tllnt llre re-

dlntricting plntr nl' lssuo vlolotes ntttetrrle<l Set:lion

2 of l.tro Voting ttlslrls AcL of t96tr - '- ' "

A.Alnotrrlorlsecliorr2gttrtt.nttleesevel.yci[izett
l.he riglrt to ntr erlttnl opportrrni[y to pnrtici-

pnte itt tlro polil'k:nl prlrctxs "".:'-""

Il. The tllstrlcl. cortrt tnls:rppllcrl lhc ftc[ot's np-

proprlnte [o nn httnlysls of nppellces' clnitn of

unlnwfrtl vol,o rlllul'loll "'--""''-'----'

7

l9

:t4

(rn)



I

C&cs*-C,rrtlnrrert: ' 
lY 

Pego

I)orte v. IlIoot'a,5:19 lr'2(l 1162 '--' ' ---"-""---"'l'l' l8' 28' Bl

l)urtstort Y. Scott, :t36 F Supp' 200 2G

iruurt Ropidt Scl.lr.,ol Di'rC' v' Ilotl' No' 8!t-000

(.trrly l, l08l-r) --.--'-- - '------""'-"--""' l0

Griar-Cifq Collcoe Y' lltil, No' 82-?92 (Feb' 28'

. le84) 16

Ilorper & Ilotu, I'ublishet's, Inc' v' Noliolr Drtlcr-

prises, No. gil-iolz (Mny 20, 1986) - ""' 18

Ilendlix Y' Josaltlt, ffd f'Lrf 1266 --'-----"--""14' l0' 20' 28
,Jonasv.Cittto|lnbboclc,727tt.2dBG4,oplnlorr

rcltenritrg, ?80 tr.zd 233 -' -"' ""- -"'10' 20' B0

I(elclttnn v. R11rne ,?40 F'Z(l lilgS' cert' denled' No'

84-$27 (Jtrne 3, f086) -"-'-- '-"""'- '---""""""-"""- l'l'Zl
l,ce O<ttutly llt'turalt ol NAACP v' Citv ol Opelikn' ^- --

?48 lr.zd l4?s --.-------- "" 20' s0

tlcoat'ty Y.IIe,;e;;;;;t,iis r'ztl ll3'1 ""' """-""""' 28

lkfllcshcy \. Zottt,680 f' Supp' 8it8' n['d' ?68 F'2d

877 ............ B0

tlcGilt v- Goilsilii Cii"tu Contttt'rt' 6sr F'z(l 2??" 28

lI c lt illott v - n *"o)ot'io C oluily'? 48 F'2d I 08? "' - " "' 2l' 2i
llatt'o1tolilo,, oiiio" ci' v' iAnr':' d00 u'$' ?G0 ' 18

Nortlt llooett ii it Edttc' v' Bell' 466 U'S' 612"" 16

Poltott v. vorrr.i,No. 88-06 (Jrtno 20' 108'l)-""-"" l9
Prtllrnort-Sln "Ai:i 

v'-Sroir*, afO U'S' 2Il! "-' " """' tl{

Rogr.t's tt. ',odgta, d68 U'S' 013 "'j:-' ; "'-"-""""""'14 '2:l'81'Seirt 
tott v - I I ltiwnl, No' P-8 I -40-CA ( IE' D' Tex''lttt'

30, 1084), nl['d ruD lronr' Slrolco Y' Secalo[' No'

83-l8Z$ (Oct. l, l9S{) -- """ .""""'18' 20' S0

Stlicklorrt v. lVa'thitrgtott, No' 82-166'l (Itlny li'
lo84) -. ..---.- 18

. l'ttylot' v. tlclkil'htrlir, 4$0 F'z(l 8gn -"'----"--'"-":---" 8l

T,ltl trzns v- Clciit'ct*i;s',681 ll' Srrpp' l82g 20-80

' Tnrttcr v- ltciaiitdte'", lco lr'zrf igt Bt

llttiltd tnlisn"tl-''gs"Y' Cot'ag"l:!0 U'S' l't{ """ - 28' Bl

llttilad Stotca i.-no""t of Supet'tiaorl' 6?l F'&l

ol-rl .-....... .. 2l

llnilatl Sl,rltes v' Illorcngo Cottttly Conm'n' 7Bl

F.z(l 16{0 zlt

llplnntv' Srrclron,'166 U'S' ttl '- " ' ' ' 2l

Velasqttez v- ( itV ol Abitete"726 F'Zil l0l? ' "'- "' l0

lVaitttulisht 
"i.- 

wiit, No' gc-llz7 ('lnrr' 2l' 1086)" l8

llrlttnce Y. llortsc.616 lr'zd 619' vnctrl'ctl nrrrl re-

ntntttlrxl,'126 tI'S' g'l? -- "-'- """' '-"" ' '."" " "" 24'il:l

ll'ollcrrv.Nntforro''Ast'nollkrilial/;on'^Stt't'utlool's'
No.84-6?1 ('Irrrxr 28, 1986) ",-lll

lVhile,on$ v. Cltrtuis, 403 U'S' 124 " ' 
'lo'qtr"r

ll'hita v. Relles,ttt', itz tl'S' 7$6 ' "" ' ' -' !)' l('' 1:z'l4"lo'
26,20,31, il:l

lVttc.ha v. llorliroll f'olf'rlr l'oliaa 'f ru'y' Glli F'2rl

Zinttne.r' v. llclkil'hcn', 486 ll'zd 120?' nfi'rl srrD

rmw. lNttst (iat'toll I'n'islt' Schoot [li' v' llot"
shall, 424 U'S' 63G l'l'24'2$'itit

(lonntllrrtloll. al.nlttl'e nttrl rttte :

U.S. ('ionnl,. Anrctrrl. I (ltrstnbllshmetrl' (lltttne) '

VJft,* ltlrlrts Act of l90ti, 42 U'S'C' l0?l el scq':

g2,tlzU.S.C. (le?6txl') 1073" "
$.2,42U.S.C. lo?3 . -- -

$ z(tr), {2 U.S.C' l07ll(l')
S 6,42 U.S'C. (lg?0 ert') lO?llc ' ' "

$ 6, {2 U.S.C' 1073e """""
Ferl. It. Clv. l'. 62(n) ' ' "

Onms-Contlntted :

lllncelhtltrntte :

Iloyrl & Mnrknrut, 't'hr- 1982 Amer:dmelnl's lo lhe

Votinn Right's Aet: A Legisloliua llist'ory' 4O

Wnsh. & Lce L- llov' lBd? (1083) "'
l?7 Conr. llr:c.:

Pngo

l!t

2

lrr.rsilrr
27

2
t7

17, l0

0, l0

gr. S163?2 (rlnllv crl. Dec' 16, l08l ) ' " "
p. Sl6C04 (rlnllv erl' Dce' 16. l08l ) ' "

128 (ionr. lloc.:
grp. llll840-1138'11 (dnlly erl' 'lttttc 23' l!182)

ir. lln8,l I (rlnilv erl' 'Irrrte 23, 1082)

p. l138'12 (rtnllv txl' 'ltrrte 2il, 1082) " '

ir. ll:lS'l'l (rlnllv crl' Jutrc 2!1, 1082)

p. tlnn4O (rlnilv erl"trtno2!1, 1082)

gr. 50600 (rlnilv erl' 'ltttte 0, l!182) - '

p. SGI-I6? (rlnllv erl' 'tttttc 0, 1082) ' '

p. S6660 (rlallv erl' Jrrrrc 0, 1082)

0
0

l3
l:r, 14, l7

l:l
t,l

12, ll
t6
t6
l0



rr.acerrrneorw-conqnrrar: 
rr Pnro I ftr lftr Stlmrru Otrrrrl.rrf il1t-]lrrllr'il Flnlut

0cronnn'l'DttM, lOBE
p. SC04? (tt:rlly erl- Junc 10, !19?! "-' ""' lB' l0 

I 
v(irl-,r't)!L I,.'r"

[ffi;;i:i;ii;;:i ;;;i;,?:11q?l :: I
p. SGC66 (rlnilyerl. Jrrrre 10,1982) -- ' ' l0 

I'- rr 'noer 'o 
t No' 83-l9o8

rr. 56? l? (rlnilv ert. Jrrne 14, 1082) rtr 
I

i;#ilir'#ii i,r'irv crl' J*rre-l?' 1082) ll i r,4cY II. Tlt,ltt'trturttt, ,'r AL'' 
^t'rrrr'l'^N,s;;:ilffi ti,,liv ",i-'r'rrre 

16' lo82) ' lo l

lrriil.l:lliir,tffiiliili: 
: :] ii | ,,n,*, 

a

;;. ffi;i i,roirv err. rttne li'ill?l li;, 
,r, ii I 

rnt'rtt GrNt:t'rs' t,lr'^r"

i' qlllr lrlnllrul {::: 13':::31 il t ..r..,.. ....., 

-
.r.r.rtrr rrrrlt,i.tltl llNllr. r, r !,,r,

l;: ;iii; i:i;ii; rxr. June lq: lry1 :l 1 nntINF tlgtl.l'tlll..t11:l:T'1,.1li,',,t1:
lr. of . rV l!..'.'J lu! e .-'

;.;;ii; iq;it*1 .1,,,'' l:::::ll ll I ns 
^rlu(;r,s 

cunr^rr surPort'r'rN(; n r'r'nr't'^N'r's

ir. s?r rg (rlrrilv crl. 'lrrno 18, i*}1 i; \ 

-
fr. 3?120 (rlnllv erl. Jtrne 18, 1082) '. " '-' ru

^ : I',T':',::::"i ;:'1.:I ::lil;lll,'ffl;ilffii;Iiil;.;,il;;:;;r, -.-- '' I on ocr.orrcr r, t$8i, r.ha corrt crrternr nn otrrc' irrvir-

"i+ffil#""i,'.i;i;ri,,^l*'lx;:; i ui*',rxt****:ffl'':;,:*J'",x".'i,,:*i';;l#;i;;';;'i;:;,;;;3.1r':;#i,,*",' , I ;,;ffi{-il-iqx:::*-.:t',1:i;1;ifT:i;,'1,','*,,','l;il;;.;il;;;.;i;til. r't.r_(roat) - .- ": I ;i:,iil;il;i*;"rhc!s, nn(r r.he col,tt ,1"'^l::l'"1;ll
,,iiliiiil[,n9i'ir.'i+*: :l*lt ---"- "l i i1l;i-ilil;i;,; ;; r"rL". t'- qrrcatiorn on Arrlir 2!r'

ii.it. nroa, $?tn cotrs., lstsens' !'it1) ;;;;;, """"' o ,*o ! i;ifi
ii.ii. i,rnl'rii'-ili,",iiiri c,nr., rci se,s. (r08r) .... . o,.13' i "iiil" cxsc ,,.G!crlq- Gcvornt 

-n"*!rlll1-:'1T,111fl..:tT'r | 
";;';. ,"r,*i.it.ti,,r of the 1982 rnretrrltnenl lo secl'iorr 2

0 I proper (:t)lls 16 rr c d r.rrra r|'trn

ir. 56961 (rlnllv ed..Iune 1?, ll9?l ' r'r' r{' ru i ...-:

s. renz, $zrh c"r's., t"tla l:ilil - -- - - ; I ii"ii; hii iil i-'i'iri"-r,irnl-,v lcs||onstblllr.y fot cnrotc-

".11f*'iil3?fi['"ffi"J*1'1,;;;--:.-;".J I liJ'i*',"..11'i,.i1i",T"1;*'n',*":1n;,^iXi1lliiil.,l* [#il;1?'Y,:l;,il'"X iT,'; ;, 9;:'- 
- ' ;;i",:Jt r;.;*'1! 11L 

tp-3*]-fi'"**':ll'I,,U:."'
"i:i r;:^il{;;':''tr'i{l "i*'iiii,* 't 'o" lill: iil,'i 

"aii'i-i*' 
;".her irmn rmpcrrcs' rts or'jc(tived'

':ii.i.' a*i. i tt 
" 

,rtdrci.rrr, tnoi co.rf, ' &l

s{rd (lo8r!r: | *l'A't'ElllllN'r

.i}*m;**;t,-#*,fl flfl'i-,tlqnl"i':'lifffl:'il'il',isi$ilfrliii
,,'lil"if'mtl,lr'1,,;.;;,;;,;;.;,;;at 'o'll (r)

! !{!'11!19'T"Il::11::l:l --- - ; I :;iffi i;;ii;'iii;iil AcL or t0G6, " Y-s.9'J'?1:.-1'll"



2

ennetc(l pllrstl:lnl, l.o provlslons of .tlre Nort'h Crtrrrlitttt

cotrstiltttiotr l,lrnl, rc';tiirerl, lrrrt' lrtrl trot receiverl' pre-

cleararrce pursuant to so.tiun 6 of l.lro vol'irrg ltiglrts

,r.l'"i iori6, 42 U.s.c. (10?6 erl') l0?3c' :rnrl-tlr:rt' tha

;; ;;i lrrrge rnulti-tttentbcr rllst'r'iets sttbttler[cd eonoen-

tt'rttions of bl:rclt vol'ers nntl rlilrrterl mlrrot'i[y vollng

;i;;;,;li, in viotiltion of ttra (iorrstiIution nnrl sccl.lorr 2

"i iii" V"rirrg ltiflrt's Act of lllGl-r' 42 U'S'C' (11)?(i crl')

l$?3 (.r.S. App- 3n-44)'t Aftcr l'lrc plnns were trltimnl'ely

,r,tu1rt*t Uy f fra st:rt'o lcgislat'rrrc,' appcllecs ntneukxl l'hcir

i,i"ti,ii,,rr--to chrtltettge"live Ilorrsc l)istllcts (Nos' 8' 2l'
zil, 21i, artrl il9) ,,,,,i-ttun Scttittc l)lstricts (Nos' 2 :rnrl

221 tnrl to cottfot'm iheir pleatlings [o lhe newly-ttntentlsl

scct.iorr 2 of l.he voting hlgl,tr-A"t.' 'l'lro "grnvflmen"

ui ui,lrutt"us' clnitn wil'li referettcc itt thesc mrrltimemlrer

rlisl,rict.s wirs l.lrnl, t'lrc S[nte's pl:ttt "tnttltcs ttsc of rnrrltl-

rrrcnthct' rlisl.r'icls with strbstnitill wlrite volirtg nurjor-

il,ics irr solne itl'easl of l'lre stfllc itt which llterc ttrc sttfll-

"io,il, 
.,,n"olttt'ittions of blnck votcrs l'o fot'trt martority

irir*i 
"i,tgre-lnetnlrcr 

rlist'rlcts r ' '"' (J'S' App' dn)'

ii," pf"""w*s iu ti,i, 
''u'p"tt-clnlrncrl 

to violnte ntttottrlctl

Section 2 of l.tro Votlng Rlght's Acl"

2. 'l'ho etse wns trle(l belole a tlrrce-Jutlga cottrt. otl

the basis o[ cxtensive slipulntlons of fttet, rlocttmenttl'y

*rirfon".,, rrnrl ornl tesl,imony ('I'S' App' Bn)' Tlre cottrt

cnterctl an ortler nnJ nptnt'n conlnltring extcntivc-ll-nrl-

itrrs on l.hc vntlous fnctors ftlcnti0ed ln the lcglslntlvc

ffiil; oi'l,tuoi,iorl Soctlon 2 ntrrl erse lttw tts relevnttt

l" ^ ,,rt" 
rlllrrl.lon clnitn' J'S' App' 2ln-6lrt' 'l'he cottrt

irclil that ,,it hns rrol beeotne possible for. bl:rclr cltlarrr-q

to bc elcctctl to nll lcvcls of st:r[e govet'trmcttl ln Nortlr

Curolirru" ti,f. tt iZat. llowovet', thc corrr[ frrrlhcr lrckl

' ,U" ",*rt 
cotrstlttttlottnl provlslon to rvhk:h tlre srrlt rcfcrreil wnt

n provlshrn nrloptrxt i,, ioot'p*r,lbltlrrg tho rllvlslon ol rountles for

ti,L ,u,.pr"u of crcntlng clecl'ornl dlstrlcts'

r'l'lre pt'rrccrxllrrgc nro dericrlbed ln ottr cnrller brlet (nt l-2)'

totrlytrvoo[thcgerllstrlcls-.|lrlrrsol)latrlctSnrrdScrrntel}ls.
lrlct, 2--rvcrc cttt're"i to nnrl hnd rccclvorl proclenrnttr:o ttnrler Sec-

tlou 6 of tho Votlrrg ltlrlrlr Act'

if

tltat, ttutlcr thc tot'llil'y of tlro rt:lcvatrI cit'cttlttsl':tttces'

ii,"-',.Ji"t, icting p1,,,, in nll scvcrr ctr:rtk:ngcrl rlisl.rict_s

rlilrrtcrltnirroril,yvtllrlsittvirrlitIiotttlfitttrctlrlulsr:cl.irlrr2
,,,r,i ".iri"*l 

clcctirrrrs in the clurllcrrgrxt rlislricts (ilrf(|.).'

'l'lre rlislrict crlull'-tlso rcvicwsl nl' lcrrgtlt tlrc -r'ttittl
,tu,rr,,[,',,pt,ics lltrrl ,utittg lristory oI c:rctr clrlllcrrgcrl tnttl-

titrtcntlrcr rlistrict.
Ilortsrt Disttiol 2I. llorrsc l)isl.ricl 21, irr wilko (iotrrrty'

clects slx tttctnbcrs to tlre Gettcrttl Assorrrbly ott tttl ltL-

f",g* lr"tf" (.r.S. API'' li':tl' .'l'ltc ;roprtltttiott tll l!::
,iir[,:i"u ls 2l.s/,lrk,"it, .ntl blnck vot'crs c,rtstitttte 16'l'/"

oiiitt ,,,git[et'etl votet't tit'itt'l '' '12'h of the rvlrilo vot-

i;g ;,g"';r"pttlttliotr is rcgisl'ered to vote' trrrl d0'?'l' of

the btnck voting ngo 1'Jprrlutlon is regisl'rtrctl to volc

(irl. rrL 24zr n.221. lfno iluck puprtltrtion is so siltttttul

l.irat, one sittglc-ntcttrbar legistntive rlisl'rict' cottkl be tlrttwtt

,rirt iu tho [tesenl, lxrttntLries, with t blach ;xrprrlrttiott

ol 67'h (irl. ut 20;)- U,ttler' thc elrnllengrxl pl:rn trrrl

il.s prc,le"essol',' ttlto irlack legislttt'or wtts clecterl in lll80

tit,o ,tt"trft:l court forrrrrl (J'S' ApD' ttln-621) thnt llrrr trrtnlity ol

tho follorvlng "lr"tttttstuu"us, 
ln conil'llltrthrrr rvltlr tltt: rtsc of lnrgo

nrulg_nremScr rllstrlctg, rllluicrl mlrr.rlty v.trxr ln crrr:1 .f t1o r:hnl-

tongerl rllstrlcts: (t) i'tltu llrrgcrlng clfrrts oI auvcttty yr:ttrr of

ofllclnt rllscrlntlttntiotl ngtlrrst irlack cltlzerrs ltt lrltrttcrs tortr:lrlng

re-gl"trnttnrr nrrrl votlng,'; (2) ,.sulrstnrunl to ncvcrr: rnr:lal polnrlztt-

tlon ln votlrrg," (:f) "il'o ellcr:ts of thlrty ycars of lrcrsistcrrt rtrt:lrrl

;;;i" lu pliltt"nt ctrtttptrlsns"' ('l) "u rcftrtlvclv tltprcsscrl a,ckr-

ccorrornlc stri.[s resrrltlrig i-tr slgtllrlctrut rlegrea fl'olrl tt r:rtttlttry of

da itttc nnd rle ;aclo ncgrcgntkrrr," nrrrl (.fi). "tlrc contilrrtlng cllcr:t ol

" -ni,rrft, votorc,trrlrJrr"ttil'" 'fho cottrt nlso lorrrrrl llrnt ln crcnllng

lhosolerltrglo.tnelnllerrlistrlctclrrrltotrgrrl--scrrrr[el)lsl,rir:t2-.tlrc
Siit" f,u,f ,iitutot blnr:k votlng otrcrrgttr by frnr:turirr|I tlro blnr:k

commrtnlty lnto trvo rllstrk:ts conttlrrlng blnck vol'lng ntlltorll'lutt

(J.S. ApP.62n).
Srtbsequentprrrcecrllrrgslretlcacrlbcrtltrottrtnrlicrllrlef(nt:t

n.l ).
rl.ho corrrI rlkl rrot nrnkc n llnrlirrg fot' ntry rrf llxl rlistrir:l's rt'gntd-

lrrgvoUngngo;x4xrlnthrtt,rvlticlristtreprafcrttrllrtcttsttt'c'Scc(iity'oittnrrrl. 
U"itort.Slalcr,'l'l$ U'S' 166' 180 n'22 (ltltl0) 3ll'vchc v'

lloilitott I'rrldpll l'olice irt\, $36 F'&l I l6t' I tlil-l t02 (6t'lr Clr'

l!)81).
ITlrcr:llnllcrtgcrlnrrtltl.rlrcrnlrcrrllstrlcl.sr:titttltttlctlllre.oxlrrtlng

dlstrlct-s nnrl ttctr nplrortftrttrnetrls (J'S' App' l0n)' 'l'hue' lt h;xrs-



^

ifl lii;i,qll:{'iT**ili*,u*'}l*t*[
:[ ll*t r,, :r, : * "i';.il;]ii: ii[,'# Th: r,hrli.t:
i;: il:' i,i' i i il.,;. ';,,"f;:T''{,,^,rg,,ili, i:.m.,,: :itl,lr"I;tt'.',':i; "X,' il, 

" 

"'- 
i':g^:l, : ".Tli,, ;,;,i tu 

" 
otu, o n'r

tll# *l;*- 
il}lt':tr'il[*[Tr"i' "r"51ffi

i*,,,ffi;#rn:;+ff[ffi
ln evcry clecllttn-.srrt|"r" ,i* qenernl clercl,ion l.n t.",i.Ll -'tn

til#$tml;{iu{
2$!o ol [lrc w

:i*, * Iihn', il"Tr {Ji:51'''* flflntJnrge .(i. 
S...lllii"tinn-un,t ts%

'fr iiTflillilill,ili:'i.'*Er1tltl}iil,,fi'llll' 
r' l;ri i[fi: 

" 

#'rirl: ffi , r":ll$ mrl;;
il*ili'ir;; rlistricls tr^tltl lre ttra

;;;;,,,,n:ll:"1'fi,:'H'",:l[:l]" 
rrnluct' i( 'rnv' 

rrv rurkrrrs nt

resulls frotn lt

r,s1,,rc',il1j;tiltl*$m,:"Y'ffi: ii'llln"""
Lwo rtf wlrotrr

ufiHm*ffsffi
:"'i',;###:ll 

i*,, ii' l'r, ;l ;l' ::l J' 
i,, 

" 1,,,i i :hi:
'*,;f,,Iil,',, *l;til,*i#i*lll"[t"]Jvill"l';"
l-u ili", -,r,.,,,.,1, 

llllt;i,,1' l,ill tt,' :tl ir: ;t li" i ::ili
';:'Jil[' X;: ';#:iHi:i: l**: lf i' fi ,,,',,, " 

s i':'l g I c.': nr:': n

;'il'il.i. ryr,,' :i I, ltii.. i T, iu *. r,q 
{ii ;11",,$llll . 

r:l
bcr lcgisl.tt*-_'f,Tn"f"',r,.,."" (i{r. 

:..^.,r,,rivcs clccterr rn
urnck v.tcr.' "nXX' ui" u,o 

--riuu'o,:",,:illllll'liirl' 
;' i;ir"t,

rrrcnetrt plntt' uwo h# -ilJ #l";i,t ,u"io"turl in 11r'16

i: i'-,X6',ill* .*.f l il 
t 

lll, il:l u ii,., .r * t:l, i,:'tjli. ot 36.r)., .lli^'X,Lr"iit., ,i rno whita '"1...'l'^,1
i o 8z r""ci v 

"L :": T,J' H Z, 
",1 

",r 

-i 
o f',il,lli,i:: T l:, 1',:;

tl:r iH ""r llti:,9:nil,'r:;'i g;n it-fll # x]

iii,;;' i J,il rl?: Jiii'i" li!j",.:":' *o gc'er nr erccrro' i rr

,r, J 
"r'i,r; 

-,,l,1,t 
"..,t'r'r:,I i.l',lti. 

t'"'

,.l; fi i i#*i,; Yr*i;*r'iru; rart#r;I**
(J'S' App' I
_. 

t 11- wcrc 6trly scvctr' whitr: t:rrrrrlirktirls for clght Jxrsltions ln

":i***,ffi 
],,',',l",*:r 

j:f*rlt*;i'liifr ,#i;rtit
bcott elocterl n

wlrlte vote ln

APP' 86n) '



6

l$.8% of llrc rcgist'ercrl voters nt'o blnck (ibid')' In

Mcclrlcnl,ur'1J Cortrr[y, lilfi' ol t'lre rulilto. volilrg :tge polttl-

;;;i,,;- ;; ;ogi*to,'o,['tn 'oto, 
rts is 60'8/" of tlre bluck

;;;;; 
-ugo-l,u1,,rlntlun 

(id' nt' 24a n'221''a 'l'lrc bl:rck

p,,irii[,u,,"", is srr sltuirtcrl tlurt otto sittgto-tnetrtber rlistricl'

Inirf.l bo cr.cnterl with a 't0.0f,, btack lx4rrrlrrtion {irt' nt'

20a1. [ttrrler the Present 1tlan, no blrrck Surator is part

;i'til" tlclegatiorr;- t,u*o'"t', :r blnck -cilizcrt 
was olcctorl

iroin tUZf-"tflgO (frl. at 3'l:r). l'ho lrllt:k senatorittl itr-

"uirtl,o,tt 
(Alcxantler) rcceiverl 47/" of l'he white vote itt

l.lra lt)?B pt'itrrury, rurtl 41ft of the wlrite vote in llre gatt-

oriut *tu"tirn; lris shnro of lhe wlrite voto dropped lo 23ft

in ttro 1080 prirnatJ tttr. a[ 42n)' A sccrttrtl ltl:tck cernrli-

,loto (l'ntt ),'rtrnning in 1082, gtrrrtct'etl 821" of the rvlrite

v,rtcs irr tlre p'inurr"y arrrl 8il/' in lho gcnernl clcellotr'

Ibill.

lN'l'Ir(tl)u(:'l'loNANl)stlMnlAltY(tl''Alt(;t'MtiN'l'
,|.tlisisllrclil.stcaseiltthis()otrr'l,tonccrltrllllcrrnry

appcllnl.e t'cview to l triat cottl'L's firxlilrg of a violutiott

,i'tt,o l0B2 :ttrletrrlttrcttt l'o Sectiorr 2 of tlro Voling ltlglrts

Ae[- 'l'lrnt, provision, cnnclcrl tf[er; ntr intetms lcgislnt'lve

str.rrggle, t.ejrre,rcnts a studierl corilpl.onriso tlru[ cotrrletntts

,r,ry-iitn*o 
"lu"tn,'ui 

pt'ocetlttt'es tlrll. "rcsul[" ln u denial

ui ,,u "eqttnl oPporr'trnil'y to pnrticiptrte ln l'lro elercLoral

1ll'r)ccts." 'l'hn[ conclusiott is n ntnttet' of law' t'he ltro;rcr

i,ri"_l,iir,, ,f wlrtch n*rsl, 5e cstlr5lisha(l nnrl nssurcrl hy

iti" buu.t. 'l'tris ultimate tlelet'mlttnl,lon rcqttl.as rleli-

",,t" l,i,fg,,renl.s thnt cnn lrnrtlly lrc t'cttcltetl or revlewetl

il-;,t;, i;""hatrienl stantlnt'rl' If tlro intcgril'y of tlre Sec-

tLrn f cotttllt'otrtiso is [o lle tn:tittktittotl' lll('l'eovcl'' ntl 8p-

pcllll.e cotttll. lttttst tlsslll'e il'self nol' orrly tlrtt a l't'ilrl court

itu." 
"u,t*i,lut'sl 

tlre trppt'opriatc t:virlctrcc in reaclrlrrg lts

uurclttsiott, brti. nlso tit,tt ittit evitlr:ttcc, l'ttkctr fls n 
-rvlmlo

i,iut lr',tf,o, fy httlttttcetl, sttppot'l's- tlrc trlnl cotlrt's ttn-

"*rr" 
l,o l.lrc rrll,illrnte tltlcst'lott tlrnt (longress htw prc-

scribcrl.

lI"i" ,,,",rir:t corrrt rlhl n.t m'ko n lirrrllrrg frtr (irtrlnlrtts uourrty

(ar:o J.8. APP.2'ln-Ztrn tt'22)'

7

't'lto tlistt'icl, ctltlrl' eorrslrleretl atl of llre cvirlcttcc' brrl' il'

t'etcttetl nn rrlt'irrrtto conrtlrrsion ul' rxkls with l'ho corrcct

iu"gui' ;i,,,,,t",.t. If left rrnrlistnr.lrcrl, tlrnt rk:cisi0n lne:tns

lhnl, rvhcrr:r,,r rl,uro hfls bcetl rliscritnln:rtiott itt tho pas[

nntl srttno lllc:tsll[o t'i 'tt"ittl 
polfll'iz':rl'ion ilt vrlLitrg in tlrc

prcsent, rlistrict cottrts will Lo ft'cc to slr'ike rkrwtl vir-

trrally attty schcttto lhlt rlrrcs tttlt- or cvclt llttlstl lhitt rkr-
rlellvcr cleeflrnl Etlc(:csses ltropot'l'ionrtl lo tltitlot'ily vo[-

i,,s'J'*,tgt'. 'l'luri is rt'l' wlrrif' t)r'rtgt'rss ittl.nrletl' Spc-

cllicnllv. wc shlll {r'gllc tlrn[ l.lrc tt'i:rl cttttt't, hy igrrorilrg

affi;'l"i#il'uiJu,.rt s.ccesscs lrr rlro rlisl.r'icls irr
\ *;;i"",;l;i;i ;,:;i r.c'ls,,r,al,ty tmve f.rrnrt a vt,tilrion rrrrrlcr

U,o- 1rr,r1ro,' "cqttltl o[1rur'lirnity l'o Ptrr'[k:iPittc" Bf,lttttlitrtl'

i,ut rotlicr n,,t"t, it,f ii"illy lr:rvo sortghl' to gttttt'tttttec c.1n-

[itrttcrl nrittorl[y elei:tolrrl-srtccess' Frtrther' llrc rxrttrl'lre-

iu*- ,,aq,toO nnO rnrrrlc rlisposit'ive n .rlafinition 
of Inelrrl

bloch voting lhnl., tnken litornlly, rniglrl' justify-.linrlirrg

thls factor ;,.o.otiI in virt'uatly any rlislricl' with rr t':t-

.i,,ity n,trorl' cle,ctorillo ilnrl thrrs corrlrl jrrstify lcqrri[ing

1,r'np-nrtl,,,tol rept'esetrta[lon in nll sttch rlistricts' Con-

Eressiet'nfterl a prcciso stnntlard fot' ittlet'venl'iorr in llte
;;;tJ;i fto*s, nr,,t tirtetiry t.o tturt stlnrtarrt rcqrrires

[ha[ this jrrrlglnenl, lrc sc[ asido'r'

Alt(:tf ltllrN'l'
,rttDl}ls,l.|tlCT(:otIlt,l'l,ltn()NlE()Ilsl,Ylll.]l,l),l.ll^.1.
'l'llDltl':l)lS'l'ltI(:l'tN(ll'LANA'l'lSSt'EVl(ll'A'fDS
AMltNl)lill silt:'t'ttlN 2 01" 'l'ltll vo'rlNG ltl(:ll'rs
A(:'f oli' 1965 I

A. Anrenrlcrl Secl.lon 2 (lrrnrnrrlces livery (llllz,crr ,l,hc

lllghi'lb An llqrrnl (lpporlunlty 'l'o l'nrllclprrlc lrr 'l'hc

I'olltlenl l'toce'sg

l.'l'holcgistrtivch:rckglrrttttrlttflttrtetttlctlsccl'irnt2
ttntlcrscot'cs ilro cctrl't':rlity of thc lrlirrciplcs nrlterl rtlxrve

to tho cottrpt'otttisc ettitclctl into Lht[ tnw' Atncnrlctl Scc-

tr We rvlll ryrt rllscttss tJ1v1111s l)lstrlct I nrrrl Stnnlo l)lstrk:t 2'

lrotu,,ro nppolltrnts' t:lrtllattgc to tho rllsl'rlct t'tttlrt's l:ottcltt$lott ns lo

thosorllstrh:tslsrrotrvlthlntlettco;teofthc{lrrrrt'snottrllonof
probnble f rrrlstllctlon.



B

t.iott 2 rclleels tlte consensus of nn overwhelmlng rnnforll'y

of l.hc (iongress, reachctl only nfter tn inlensivo ntxl

rlovisivo rleb:rtq whsllrer to enilorso ol rejcct tho holrling

t^, 1ULU ol moiite v. Ilokll'rlt,440 t''S' 66 ([OBO)' 'l'hc

,r.u,lrrJ[ r,f l"h:rt tlcbnte wtrs o pt'ovisiott tlrn[ rloes ttol rc-

ii"i,-'",,,,,rr",,i-,.-.r"i .nlr'.s io cst.brisrr r vlolrtl.n of

nrnertrlcrl scetiolr z 
",,,t 

tltrcs ll(,[ nllorv pro0f rf elcctoral

flilrtro solcly or evcll 1tt'epontlerarntly to cstablish n vlo-

lution tttt,letl tlre Act. iuug'*t choso att nltogelhcr rlilfet''

oiJ n1,1,ru,,.|;t As lrlopterl, Sccl'iott 2 guaratttces-evet'y

"itirnr'oltrui 
,,".u*s to tlre eleclornl llr'(ress trnrl lhtts

focuses ttpolt llt:tt lrl'occss il'self'r!
!t. Atttctttletl Scction 2 origin:rlcrl in the 07th [!on-

grou, ,ul,on II.It. 3ll2 w:ts introtltrcerl to oxtcntl certain

fcal.ttrcs of llro 196t-r Voting Rlglrls Act nnrl to nrotlify

Scrlion 2 of l.lro Act bccnui ni tho rlcclsion ln City ol

lIoltila. Il.lt. 3l l2 woukl lrnvo elinrinutetl {ur interrt

,rtt|n,tnId hy for.hirlrling nny jrrtisrticLiolt frotn inrposlng

or npplyirrg nrry clecto'rnl irmetice "itl a lnflnrlcr rvlrleh

,,*,,it, ir, o ,touint or nbritigernent of l'lro right ' -' .' tl
volo ,rr 

'ccottnl, 
of r.nco o, irlo" , ' 

"" 
tt n [est clnlnrerl

l, At [lx: onrne linrc, the leglslatlvrr ltlstory of ntrtct|tkxl $lcr:llorr 2

ls conrplh:nte,l. vnricgnteit, intl, olt oct'nslttlt' cotrtrnrllctory' 'Iho

iuur,,ngn rrltlnrntcly lncorlx't'ntcrt lntrr tlrls plovlsirtn rvns prrtlnsrrl

by Sctrntor t)ole ns ,, ,,,onuu of resolvlng n rlcnrtlock lrr l'ho Scnnh:

J,,,ti,rtn.y (lorrrrnltleo ttrnl nrono nfter tlc Scltnttr (lrrrstll'lltkrn Srtb-

contntltteo trnrl rcjoetort tho llorrsc vcrsittlt of Scctlon 2 lrr lhls nr:t-

itng, ,,u,tuo ctrrl,linsls trrttst nol he glven to tlra vlews of nny ottc

fnctlon ltt tltc r:ontroversy. Tlta leglalnth'a lrlstory nrrttlt bo urttler-

ntrxxl ln trlrtnr of llr rlomlnnnt movetrrcnt ntttl lltntlnlttcntnl ptlrlxnttu'

str,l.,nur,t"oltlrcrnnJorltytnthesr:nntellolxrrl,whllalllrlnrlnnllvo
ollntnllylssttos.nlttstlleovnttrnlerlngnlrrsItltcr.ecrlrrlostnlllllrlrlrrl
boforc tlro Oongrr:ss trs n rvltole ntrrl }rtrtletrlrrrly ngnlnst stntcntt:ttln

,ri tt,o n,t,tttt,rrrnl vlervs of lrrrllvftlrrnl nrcr|ltxrr.s wlro lrrslsterl uurn

nrtd srtlt;xrltcll thc contprorntsa' Tho stntcnretrtl of Sonnlot' t)rllo' tlre

fllxlns.rr of tlte rxrntprntnl"", 'ntt*t 
nlso bc glvr:rt pnrtlcrrlar rvclght 

^rs tt.n. $108, !t?th (long., lst Scsr. (t$81). Sco llrtcnsion ol lhc

Vrrlitto ltillhlt Acl: ltcirinos Dalortt lic 'sttlteottrtn' otr Oiuit otd

Oorrslilrtlirrrri- Righatt o1 thi ltorttc Otnnn' .on lhc 'lrdicinry' O?tlr

i"r,*.. l"t Scss. l't. l. nt 2 (1981) [hcrelrrnfler r:ltrxl ns lftrtne

llcarinosl.

0

lry lls sttltlxtt'ters l.o sl'cttt frorrr l/lt.flo v' ll'c1\cslar'' 412

tl.S. ?61-r (10?3), arrtl ll/ftilc("'rl' v' Ohnuis' 40:l t''S' 
-t24

iiozll. Illost,,i l"lto tlisr:ttssion irr llro ltottso rcg:rrrling

ll.lt.3ll2 rv:ts rlcvotcrl lo rilltot'its;ttr:ls of llrc hill; thc

f,t"ftrt,,flotttnetlrlliecliorr2ttl'l'r:rcterllittlcrlelrrr[c't'As
rt:r8s0(llrvttrellrlttse,ll.It.:lll2ctrttIltitterlllrotrrsttll,gl,csl,
i; U* i,iigi,r,,l 5ill 'nrl 

n tllsct:tittrer l1:rI rrttrrrc'i(:^l tltr-

,lert'c1,t'eselttatlotr itsclf violntcrl Scctiott 2'''
b. Aftcr tho llotrso p:tssctl lI'lt' :ll 12, l'hc Sr:n:tlo Srtb-

conrrni[tco orr l,lrc (joristl[rrti.tt l,cgilll ltt:ttritlgs lll l'wo

bltls, orrc llrll conllitrcrl ttre l'csults l'esl' irr ll'lt' ittl2 (S'

g f f il ntrtl tttto tlrtrt rv,ttltl trnvo t'elttitrcrl l'5o (iil11 ol

frtobiitc stanrlarrl (s. lt)?l-r).r. ,l.hc cnsuirrg rlc5:rlc fr)clrstrrl

rrn llto l)l'oltcr slittlrlarrl for Sccl'ion 2' l'trr;tottettls tlf I

'calll(s 
icsi clrlclly argrtatl [tr.t tlre Cottr['s lr,lrling in

cltv ul ltoltita irisrrl|rlcrl rliscr.irrtinnt0r.y pr.:rcticcs fr'orn

'eviow 
lrccnuso of l1o rliglculty of o5trrirrirrg cvitleneo t'e-

gnrrllrrg l.ho snbjr:ctivo lnol.ival'iotts of legisltrlors' esl'c-

fintty *t,nrr l,tre prnclit:es'ln qtlesliotl wet'e arhpl'crl krlrg

rugo.;t 'l'lrcy proposcd lhnt tlre arlalysls shottkl bc hnserl

f f Soo gctternlly tloyrl & Mnrktnntr. 'l'ha I0s2 A,ri'anilnarl.ls lo l.ht

Volint iiot,t, Acl: A l,cllisldive lliiloty, '10 Wnsh' & lnc l' ltcv'

Itl4?. l1164-l$?0 (l08il) lherclrrnftcr clterl ns tlovrl & llnrhrrrnnl'

t|'l.lre rllst:lnltrlcr llrrrvttlell: 
...t.he far:0 lttttt tttclltllors p1 n ;11|nority

gt.orrp lrnve rrrt ltecrr clcr:tr:rl ln tluntbcts t:rlttill lrt lhc 11roup's tll'(tlx)l'-
,[tnn 

n f tlo ,o1xr lntl,u s1^ll rrrt, itt cr.,i ol ilsr;l/, r:.rrsl il t tl.r' tt vl'rlnt i,tt
of thls 

"n,,il,rr." 
ll.lt. itep. g'l'22'1, !l'ltlr (krng', lrrt Sr:ss' 'llt ( ll)81)

(onrphnstr nrtrlcrl) tlrcrclrrnlter clterl ns llottstt ttcprrrl l' Altlrrrrrgh he

Itn,l 
"grr,,".rrorl 

tlrc rtlsr:trrlmer, Roprcsrltltntlvo llylle tnlr:l' toltt:lltrlerl

thnt it fnllerl to nclrlcvc lts,ttrposcs. Sce t t'olirtq llillhl* iot:
lle,at.ingl ort .S. 5.t, al al. l|e.|orc lic ^Sttlrrrrltrrtl. ott lhe (i),1$,it,,,i,|lt

ollhc.gcrllrlaCorttrtt.o.r-lheJruliciary.ll?tlr(krrrtl',2rlScss"l('7-d08
tiOAZl (tostlnrony of tlep. llyrle) | hcrclrrnf tr:r cltcrl ns 'S'r'rrt'c
il,,nrittoth irl. nt g96-gg? (lcttr:r lrrm tt.,. Ilyrlc t. serr. ll,tr:lr).

r. sl|rrntora l(cnrrarly nrrrl Mnl.trlac (nnd nxrrc tlrnrr lio co-s;xrttsora)

lntrodrrr:crl s. t0$2, o?th (long., tat soss. ( llrsl ). wltk:lt wns ltkrntir:||l

to ll.R. !lll2. l2?.(lrrng. ttec. Sl6G!|,| (rlnlly crl. l)rx:. l|i, l0lll).
SonntorG'rnsnkrylrttrrxlttccrls'10?6,0?1h(lonr''lntSess'(l!)81)'
l2? (long. ltec. Sl6il?2 (rlntlv orl' Dcc' 16, l$81 ) '

.rSoe, .t.rr., I Scrtrrtr: llc(;tilr.gs t!)!l (stutclu:nt hy Scn' ilnlhlns);
iA. at inO, 206 (tcsthnony ol ltentontln t'' llooks, llxec' Dlr''



il0

npon tlto variolls sr>clrllcd "oltjcctive"- fnctors ltlcnl'i0otl

ln lVhita v. llellestet' nnrt pre-Cifi ol llobile lowcr eottrt

.,,*"" nlrptying l.lurf, slandor(l' Crltics of the resrtlls tm[

rrgrc'ctl, in essenee, Urnt n flnrling of ttntnwftrl voJo dllrt-

tion cottlrl nnrl sltortkl ln mntlo on tho strengLh of oblce- '
tivo cvitlcrtce, ltttl, wero coneortrctl wit'lr' nmong otlter'

ii,iugr, r,ho potcnlinllyJirnltles" :"11]o 
of tho test'rr A

prirrciptrl corlccl'tl *,,1 Uto irnplir:atiort lcf[ hy lha rlis-

"l,,i,trnr': 
given its tirnlte(l lcrtns-{lrnt' tttttnerical ttndcr-

r',r;rro".rr,l,r-tion of lrtittrlrities wrlttlrl tlo[ tttnotttrl' "in nntl

of ilsctf" to n vlolntiolt o[ Scc[iolt 2--oulottetrts of tlre
t'csttll.s IcsI tnaitrIlrilrerl tlrat 1tt'opot'tioltttl t'c;lresetttntlon

rvottltl irrr:lttt:ltrhly follrrW sirnliy frottt ;tt'oof of solrtc nrl-

rlil.iorrrrl fttctor irlcrrtllicrl ln llthilc ot' clservltcrc'" Atr-

otltct' tttttjor cl'ilir:istn rvns tltlrt tlre llorrso vcrsiotr lncked

!r t'eor'o villllc" or :lrl "ttl[ltlt:tLo or tlrt'csltoltl critorlon"

oilrcr lhnn ;tt'ollort'iottltl rcltrcsettlat'ion for evnluating

vo[orlilrrliottclaitns'rosttppor[et'softlret'esttl[stesl'rc-
penl.ully :tssttrul ils critics ttt*t lt' wns not o tttnndate for

ll
1rt'opot'tionnt rqrrescttl'ltl'lott,tt thaI it wlw ntct'cly lt lllolllls

lrt Lnruring Ui,t, mino'ities wc'o trot clfec[ivcly "sltttl'

",tt; 
,i Uto"olcclorttl prtrccss," ulrrl l'trl! givcn tlro lre:rvy

f,,,t,f"it il,u t*t 1,t"cul on n plainl'ifi--ono srtplxrrtct' rlc''

serilrcrl lt tts "itlcrulibly rlitllcrrlt""'-the Ucsl' wrntkl in-

vulirlrrto only lltoso eltitorul prncl'ices l'lrt[ rlcnicrl rni-

i,i,rlitiu" 
^r, 

i1,'rl ,,1xrrl,unity to ,.r[ici,.to itr tho p,liti-

;;,i ;.;;.'i As Arrn,rn.l i)erfrier, head ,f tho Voling

itigfim l't'ojccl., pttt it, Uto "gonl" of 
-nlncnrletl 

Scction 2

"is to crcalo utt olportunily-troUring nlot'o ilttn.- ttn

oppolhtnil,y--tu l,r,rii"ipnto in Uro polil'ical systeln'" I

ienola llan'irtp BLI (i'reparcd Strrterttcnt)''6 Nonr:t'lrc-

NAACI'); irt. nl. 2$0-2tll (tostlnrony of VIlrnn Mnrllttcz' I'ros''

MALDDF) ! irt. nt slS-gfb (t'repirrert Stntcnront rrf Artrmtxl

l)erfner).Ano]lrcrcrltlclrmwno[hntthelrrterrttcatlr)storcllrncl0l
,tt"l"trou"", by requlrlrrg n perEon lo be brnnrlerl nc n rnclst beloro

n vtotntlon eorrkl ho ru,,*|. iloe irt' et llSl (l'roDnrert Stntorrrrrrrt ol

irthrrr I'lernlng, Ohnlrnrnn, U'S' Cornnr'n orr (llvll nlghtc)'

It A corn}letr: rllscilsslotr ol the obJerttrttrs to tlro resrttt.c teat' h

conl.nlrrcrl lrr thc Srrlrotntnlttee's llcporl" lkre S' Ilep' ll?-'ll?' YIlh

Crrng.,2rl Sess. 108-lff, fzf-ffg' tOri-tfs (t!182) lhorclnnfter clterl

n" d"rnto Reportl (Vollng Rlghts Act: ttoport ol tlro Srrlrcomm' oll

it,u C,t,,.tlt,,tiorr of lhc Soi'nt" luAtlnry (krnrnr') lherr:lnnftor elled

u."-S,,t,t.tn,rrr. ltcportl; aee nlso Boyd & Mnrkntnn l$90-1400 (rlls-

cttaslng Srtbcontrnlttco'a obf ecllons)'

r. Sca, d.0., I Sgratc llcafingt 610 (stnternant of Scn' ltatch); id'

nt 22$-231 (tr:stlnrony of I'rof' Ylnllet llcrns) ; id' nt '10?-'108 (tostl-

nrrrny of ltr'p. tlyrle); r'rt. nt 424-4112 (tosllrnony of t'rof' llnrry-lL

iir."rl; irt.'at o16 (lestlmony of I'rof' Jotrrr llrrnzol); irt' nt ll!18

it.r"flnrruy of I'tof. trvlng Yorrnger)' Sco getornlly Srtbconttrl'

Bagxrrt 142-llfrl.
20 Sttbconttn. ltePrrt l9?'

2r seo, c.g., t saurtc lleut'irtgt 200 (l'rel$rcrl stntuncnt o[ scn'

l(crrrrcrly) ("'l'tro corrrts hlve mrtle clenr tlrnI rrnrtcr thc st'ntrrltrrrl ltt

.ur Slll titcro ls rr. rlght [o n qrrota or. to ,r.lxrrt6trnl ro,rcur:rrtntlotr,

;;;i; 
-ti,- 

"*t"rr.i 
nt lorgo clectlona"); irt. at 2.ttl (tlcrj.rnirr 1,.

lkxrls, Exec. l)1r., NAACI') Jia. nt 28s, 28? (Metnornttrlttnr o[ lttlph

G. Noar, Uxec. lilr., l^cnrlcrstrl, Cortf' .n (iivit ltlght$; ; irt' .[ ?gli

(tcstlnrony of Attnrrttrl l)r:rfncr, Voting ltislrts l'rolcct)'

,! An Ar.nrnrrrl l)arfrrcr, hcad of tlro Votlng ltights l'rojcct, Iltt lt'
"ltlho prcclte Dr',xrt nrlglrt vnry, but tho esscrrtlel clrlrttcltt of proving

ttrui tt,u r.ncl.l rrrirrorlty wns 'sltut ottt.'i.c., rlettlcrl ntcrrss--n.t alrn,ly

to wlntrlrrg ollitx:s hlrt to tho opportrrnily to pnrticll:rta irr tlro clcc-

iur,rt ryuio,n'-'was nlrvays retltllrc(l Irrnrtor pro-("ily ol llohila

"oso"f.'; 
I Sannlc tteati.r.gt 8t0 (l'rtpnrorl Slntcrrrcrrt); nce trlso'

n.g., i,l. nt 22ll (l'ropnr'orl Stntonturt of Serr' t(cnncrty); irt' nt 02li

(tcstiruotry of l)nvhl lVrrllx:rt) '
2r t Senrtlc llcatittgt ll$8 (tostinrotty oI l'nrrglrlitl ift:ltonlll'

Sorrthern tteglonnl lrlr., ACI'U)'
2| St:o, e.g., l Scrlrrlc llcat.ittgl 201 (l'estlnxltry of Sen. ttlnthlm);

iil. aLzi} iliropn.".l Slntoncnt of Sen' l(ennerly) ("cltcctlvolv alrut

otrt of a fnir oplxrrturtll.y ltol pnrtk:lpnte ln the cleclion") : irl' nt

8t0, 8l!l-820 ( I'rcpttrtrl Slntotrrent of Arnrutxl l)orftrcr) '
ti othcr ruplxrltors of tlre rcsulls al.anrlnrrl mlrrla lhc sntrtc lxtlnl'

$ce, c.p., I S,,lrrrtc llo.utittgs 306 (l'rcpnrotl Stnlornctrt of Vilnrn S'

Itlni.tl,,or, l,rosftlont, trlALl)EF) ("Ths lnstrc tlrcn, ls ttot prt4xrr-

tfurtrnl rcpresctttrttftrtl, brrt cquul accl:ss lo tlre polltlcal process");

ld.ntlt?z(l,nrrghllnlttr:t)onnkl,sorrthornlleglortnllllr''ACl'U)
ii'Wt,ut tlroso Iplo-(.:ily ol tlobilcl ctrsee rto ls cstnl)llslr crprnllty of

i""""o";. Sce nlso i,l. ni ezs (l'reparcd Stntarnont ol San' l(cnnerly) ;

iil.a|2,16.2,t6(I,repnrerlstntenront,ofllerr|amlrrl,.llrxlks,I,ros.
NAACI'); irt. nt 28$, 286-28? (Monrornnrlrrm front ltnlllr G' Neaa'



l2

less, llte Oorrst.itrrl.ion Sttbcomtni[l'ca rcjecterl tlro- Ilotwa

clfccls tcsU in favor of Llrc Cit'y ol llobila skttrtlarrl' 2

Sr.wilc llcaldrrgs 10." 
;. '[o'brcntt thc rlo:ullock, Sc'ttitl'or l)olo' witlr tlrs. lxrek-

l,rg- ui ttrc I't'csirlent, ofiei'etl tt. cotrtptutttisc vct'siott of

Sc.cliorr 2 thtt resporrtlerl to criticisnrs of l'lrc cffmts tcst

;y ;;,;;;,*ing ":riklitiottal lnngttnge" incor;xtrntetl f-rttttt

lVhittt v. Ilegcsler' "rlelineating whart tcgll statttlartl

*i,rul,t apl,ly rinrler tlrs results [cst" anrl "clrtrifying lhnt

ll,lris tcsii is nol, t tttttnrlato for prolxrt'liottnl reprcsonln-

iiur." 2 Sul(lfe. llcut'irtgs 00 (st:rlcrrrctrt' of Serr' l)ole) ;

itl. nt 68-t-r9. 'l'lre trtosf sigrrillcarr[ featuro of tlre eoltt-

llrotniso was ro rnrxlify u"ti o*1""ttl t'lro lnrrgrtagc of tlro
i[,,,,ro-1,".=e4 bill trr errsrrro [lr:rt' "er;u:tl t4r;nrtttnil'y"' not
;1,,'quri'ti,,ttal t'esttlts," wortkl bc tlrc- lcgnl test' Scnnte

liolr,t l$3-ltl4 (Atlt'liLional Views of Sett' llole); f4' nt'

iOtl tS,,l,g,tetrtcttl.irl Vicws of rScn' Gr:rssley)' As Sonntor

I)olo prri it, bccattse his version of atrtetttlerl Soctlon 2
,,frrcuslcsl r)n occess t() l.hc pl'occsls, ltrlt olectiotl t'usttltg"

12 Scriota llcathtlls 6l-62), l.lte qttcstiort to bs answet'cd

is "ttot wtroLlrer lrnirroritiesl trrlvo achievcrl prolxrrtionnl

ctccl,ltttt t'eslllLs," bu[ "whetltcr tncttrbct's of n ;lrolccterl

"iro o,,3u.y cqtial actpss. I Lhink ttrnt is tho l'lrrttsl of

,nt, 
"u,,ti,,:u,t,i*ut 

cqttnl ncce*s, wttether it ls opcn; cryral

u".*" fu U,o politi:ri ltrocoss" (irt' nt fiO; see nlso 2 Serl-

ala llatn.inr,ls 46 (Scn. tcnlry) ("lllt ls tlrc oplxrt'tttltily

l.o pnll"icipirto, ttol tho nchtal ttso of l'hll' r'ight, whiclr is
g'ricinl r r "') ). 'l'tro Conunllteo :trloptcrl Selt:t[or l)olc's

cotttltrotttiso (irl. nt. 8(i), ns dirl tlre enl'ire Sennto (l28

C.,,,g. ltcc. S?lltg (rlnlly crl. Jtttte t8, l0B2))' AlUrough

t.lrc 
"serr:rto bill rlilfcr.crt front tlro llottss vet'sion, tlte

Ilouso rlispcttoerl rvll.lr a confercncc arxl ntlo;rlcd tho Scn-

tlo bill (iil. nt, llil840 (tlnily ctl. .ltrno 23, l!'82) )'"

l3

2. 'l'he lcglslrt[ive lristory thtts rcvcrrls tlrtrl' t'lte trrttt-

prontise cncolnl):ls$crl llrrcc kcy nreas of cttttsrlttstts' li'irst''

llrere wits whlcspretttl ngrccrnen[ tlr:rl' rlircct evirlcttcc of

inlerrt [o rliscrirnirrnl'c slrorrkl not' be llccossilry to csl':rb-

i;;i;; violnl.ion ttntlcr Scct'ion 2' Ilottsc ltclxrrl' Ztl; Scn-

,,io it"prtt 103 (Arklil.ional Views of Sctt' l)olc)' Scc-

otul, rlrtrirrg l,he eottrso of llre tlcbtte, n oorlsonslls- -Sctttt-

l.rlr l)('le r-lcseribcrl it as "tr ttttitttitrtotts ct)ttscltslls"--

rtcvclopcd trgnlnsl ;rcrmlll'ing Scclion 2 clnims [o bc h:rscrl

,,pn,, il,u innbility of a grottll [o achievc rcprcscnLtliott

i,i p,.r1,,rrtion to its pnp,ilution withi, tlr* ju'isrlicti.*.'r

Ittilrnr:, tnctnlters nf Cortgtets who favorcrl '" or oplxlsctl "n

i.l,e original rcsrrlls tcsi un, lJre cr,,rrr.tisc version 'f
ntncrxlcil Sectiott 2, ns well as private sttJrportet's of lha

bill,"o ngrcerl l.lr:rt proof 0f minor'ity utttk;rt'ePresetttttliott

lixr:c. l)1r., tcnrlershlp Oonf. orr Clvll ltlslrts); irl' tt 806 (l'repnrul

Stntcnrurt of Vllrnn S. Mnrtinoz, I'rcs', MAt'l)llt'); irt' nt' 700
'(M"rnnru,ul,,ln 

frottt l"rnrrk lt. I'nrker, l;rrvyr:rs' (hnrm' for (ilvll

ttlghl.s Unrlcr Lnw).

'.,l.lrcrc wns llt]lo rlr:llnte ltr tlre llrrttsc' rrtrrl, rvltlr tlttc t:xcc;tlllttt,

tlo ono rtisngrecrl rvltlr tlro thrrrut ol sctttrkrr llole'n poettkrrr thnt'

"cqttnl Rccess" nrrtl ntt "erltrnl oplxrrtrrnity to p:lrth:i1urtc" wns tlro

rtnirrlnrrl for nnrcnrlerl Sccil,,rr z. 
- 
Sco 128 Cong' ltcc. ll:ltt'10-ll3184l

(dnlly crl. Juno Zit, l{182) (ltcp. ltrrtwtrrts); irl' nt llilS4l (ltttt'
Suu"i,,lr.onuor); irt. nf tila4z (ttcp' llvdu); irt' nt llitS'|6 (ltolt'

lltttor). UrtL sco irl. nt lt!1814 (ltcp' l'ungrcn) (rlesr:rihlrrg stnttrl-

erd ln tcrnrc ol lntottt) -

,r sonnto lk:1xrr.t lotl (Artrlltiorrlll vlews of $crr. l)olc); sennl'rr

Ilogxrrt ilil; llorrue llcport tlO; 128 (iorrg' llcr:' 5664? (rlrrllv ctl'

Jurro f0, IOAZ) (Sun. (lrnselcy); id' nt 56020 (rlnilv crl' 'lrrtrtr l7'

1082) (-Scn. tlnlclr) ; irl. nt SGlfGl (Sen' llolc) ; l8 Wr:cklv (iontp'

l'roc.t)rrc.840(Jrrne2t},1082)(l,rcrrlrlr:rrl..salglrlrrgstntcrrrclr[).
rs As Scrrntor l(crrnedy orplfllnnrl ltlu vorskrtl: "sccliolt 2, tts

a,lncnileil tttoriltl trol lr,rakc tncre lailntc ol trtitto'ilict to roitt itt'ttltot''

lloral repreccrltoliorr o oiolulion, cuct il lhnl cane u lhe tcsnlt ol

nl kru" 2lo6li.trtt- I'tnlntllfs worrhl hnve to provo nrklitiorrnl fnctors

oata6listrlng thnt, l, t1e t.tul cit'r:utnstnrtr:*s ttrln,rlty v.tcrs ll.t
ontyfnllorl-.towln,lrrrtwtlroelfecl,lvclyrlrrrlotttrlftrfltirolr|xlt.ttt.
,iti tt"t pertlclpnto ln tho elcctlon'" t Scttctc lleafinss 22il

(cnrplrnsls tn orlglnnl) ( I'rclxrrerl Stntcnrcrrt) '

2e Seo Stbcolrtttt. llelxrrl' 139-14?'

tc llenlnrrrln ttrxrks. }lxccrrtlve l)lrer:trtr of tho NAA()t" nlnrlo tlris

lxrlrrtrlrrrlngtltesr:rtatoltonrlttge:..twrrrrtrlartytlrnt--tlrlrllotrrrclre
,ury frnnkl_sllnply lrrovort rcsults would rroL hc onorrgh to triggr:r

uro-nrerlurrlsm of scctlon 2. tl worrkl only trlggel lt if thc rcsulls

wero cnttsed by come prnctk:c' ttcsults sirnply trlgger looklng nt tlrc



l4

rvfls {r ttecossitry l-rtlt not n sulllcicnl' clctncnt of tt sueecss-

ful vote tlilulion .tni"t,-ns l'lre Cottrt's. tlccision lt lUhile

,,rO'iylritr,nnb htd it"itl'" '['hirtl' lxrth- sirlcs llt llrc cott-

11;",:;-";f,'oo,t tttr,i-lho tott"opts,f rrnco,btilrtl'iontl

voto tlilulion devcloptxl by this (hurt' in llftflo nnrl [l'lri0-

;;;;;J r,s ,rpplicri t'/ ttto lowcr cottrts prior t'o 
-Cicy

i iriili"' 
"t,,n,t,t 

go,it''-nntorxtcrl Scctiott 2 cttscs''r

Atnertrlcrl Section ?, ot ttt" texl' ll'sclf tnetkcs elcar' llttts

focuses llttt ott g,,n.o"ioui'rg elocllon resttlts' brrt instenrl

on sccttting to cvcty citizen l'ho riglrl'.to un eqttal "9lt;to-t.,

trrnity ' ' ' to p"tlitipnt" in l'lrc 
"politicnl 

procoss I ' t"

fai U.S.t;. t$7i). As Senntor l)olc' wltosc vittws' ns

proctlces; tlxrl ls nll." l stlnntc llcttt'ings 20?; sea nlso' e'g'' id' nt

283 (itcnrornnrlrtm of [^f,'ft C' Nens' 
-ICxe-c' 

l)lr" lnnrlcruhlp (]onf'

orr (ilvil ltlghts) ; itf' tti izo (larrghllrr Mct)orrnkl' &rrrthcrn lto-

ghrrrnl l)ir., A(:l,U) (':iil "ui 
tu*' o[ n slrttrlo cnse r t t tltnt

onys lho nterc trlntnce "i f'f"*" 
front ottlcc ls ovcr etrotlglt to vfttlnto

olther ncriliotr 2 of tho ltth or ttrc l6llr tttturrllrrettt' Not ortly nrc

tlrcro no cnscs thnt hn'" o'o' snld tlrnt' but cvr:ry c[!to sttys nltlolt
tho olrposllo"); irt' nt' uri tf"of' Nornrtttt t)orsett); irl' nt !)8? (l'ra-

pnro,i btnto,,,ertl, of Joseplt l '' Itnuh' J r' ) '

!r tlccnuso tlro Scntto enttorse't thls Irlncllrlc ns wclt-": i1t:
(lorrrts rloclsl0t|s rn ryl-ir-r,ir, nnd ll,lrits wlrlclr hnrl enurrclntcrl lt,

ttrc atntctrrer,t fu U'o''iit'u"" ttpttt thnt,tlre conslstent defcnt o[

nrlnorlty or nrl,r,,rlty-bn.rJ"o,itt.tutcn fti ..t nt-lnr,c nys.crn ltsoll

rvoukl cstrrbll"t, n .il,,inu,.n ol nnranrtr:rl sectiorr 2 (tlouso ltclxrrt

s0-Bl) r&rcs u,,t o'1":t*"-Co'igto""' lntcnt' Sco llso pngo l7 troto

80, inlrc.
trSac. c.o., lllttak Volct's !' llcDortortg'r' 6$6 F'Al I (lst Clr'

tg??); llllrtillir v' Josclth,660 F'2rt l2(i6 {[tlr (llr' l$??) i llottc v'

lloorc,6il$ l".2rl rrrzisi'h Clr' l$?0) i ziuntet v' llaKcllhctt' 186

F.zd 120? (6th (llr. i$?tii 

'"" 

bnrtc)'' ntt'rl on othcr grortnrtr rttb

noin. l)ttcl'Co,"ff ftt''itn Solrool llrt' v' llalrftnll' 't2d U'S' 030

(lll?$); sco nlsrr I Scrrntc llcntittgt t2l0-122C (Alpcrrrllx to Prs-

;xrrcrl Stttorttcttt of 
-tti'uttk 

lt' t'nrkor' t'ttlycrs' Cottrnr' for Clrll

Itlglrts Utrdcr l'rtrv) i"t'it""tttts :lT'l.. .'t'!]l 
(iortrt rllscrrsserl theso

fnr:trrt's itt ldoyr:r's v' iuulg"' 468 U'S' 0l:l' (il!)-020 rr'8 (1082)'

srsco lhrttse lkr;xrrt 30 & n'l0d; serlnto tleport 2?-30; irt'-rrt l0'l

rr.24 | 0 (Arklltfurrrnl Viu*" nf Sari' llntr:tt) I irt' nt 104 (Arklltlonnl

Vlervs of Scn. l)olc) ; irt' nt llt8 (Stpplcrncrrtnl Vlaws of Sett'

(irnsslcy); 128 Ot'rtg''ltec' SOOAT (rlnltv.erl' Jrrrrr: l?' 1082) (Sctt'

llntlrtns) ; irt. nl stlill-iion- U'f"f : id' uf llltSll (tlnllv cd' Jtne 2B'

1082) (llcP. tirlwnrds)'

l6

pllrrclpll sprrnsol' rtf l'hc cllnlpl'onlisc Scctiott 2 tlr:rt

pm[$(l l,he Uongrcss, 1'nrvirlc- trr.ntr[lrouitrrtivc gttirle lrt

l.he sl,ntrrto'n constrtt'cdi,,;,"t sttterl in cxpl:rturtiott tlf his

;;;;,t; "lcli[izcns of ttll ritctts itt'e ctrtilkxl [o ltitve :ttr

eqlrnl cttllllco of oto"iittg tttt"ttittatns of t'hcir t:ltoict:' lrrrt iI

iii", *" r,,i.ty unnllti*'tt tt"tt opporlrtrrll'v' :ttrrl ftrse' lhe

lnw sltoukl ufo, "n'''lutit't''"'" 
Seltatc ltrrlxrr[ It)3. (Arlrli-

ii"trri Vi"*s of Scn' l)olo)' Sctttttor l)ulc rrttrtlc t'ltc sittrte

il; ,ir;ft ito nt'" rlcbrrlc otr lris trrtttptutrtisc ( lztt

.Cong. ltr:c. S6gGl ftittify 'O' 'lttnc l?' 1082)) ltrtl :rrtlcrl

l.htt, (ibirl.):

osaes nro oqttoity ';o;tcn," wlreUrer l'hcre is ttcces$l'

rvhctltor tlrey nr:e olrcn in [hnt tnernlrcrs of a pto-

tccLsl clnss nrwe tlii-sutre opportrttrity tw ollters kt

rrnrticllrlto in ilio ltolitical piu:css trtttl lo clccl' cttn-

iti,lntot of tlreir clxricc'

lrr lcslmllno to n qttc'stirllt f rotn Sctt:tl'or 'l'hrtt'tnrlittl

wlrellrer "tlte fircrts on l'ho sectiolt 2 stantlnrrl lisl tttt

",i 
,"f tlcccss l.o tito lnliticrl lll'ocoss lrr is ' ' ' ('tl

;i,;Li,",' n rnirrority gi't'up hns uchieverl tx;rrrrl nllttlit'
rcsults?" (irl. nt SAg-$Zt, Scnntor l)ole rr:plierl (i[irl'):

'Ilte foclls in sccl'lon 2 is otr e(Itlll tl(:ccss' as it
shorrkl bc. l 

"ir,n,rii 
the solriltr,,. i,,,' rlirectirrg tlro

,il*ii"*- I k";;';;i iin 'no 
in tlris (lh:ttnber tnrl I

henill ,,o oun"uuy*"itut:o elso itrrlicate [h&t it shoultl

il';iit;;;i*. if'*ttutrkl bo orr :rcc(!ss' ls l'lrc systcrtt

olrctt to punl'lo-i"n'"l(nitt",, Soutlr Cttt'olinir' Norlh

ij^,.r1^",'.1niilt'tiii^, Ncw iork' rvltct'cvtrt'? I), tlrey

I;; ;i;"'"tt ";i ;t;'opPorttrtritv [o crtsl tlreir votc?

ii-i, iirt o ,igi* t0 cicct, sorncono ()f lhcir t':tce lrttt.

ii i, oquut o""o.ss artrl httving their vote cotttttctl'

Arncnrlcrl section 2, scttnlor t)olc frtlther explainerl'

' worrftl " Iulbsolu[ety trrrt" llrovirlc trtty retlrcss "if tltc

- 
' S*, ,.r., Gtoue Cillt Ctilttlle v' lfu;lt' No' tl2-?!12 (Fcb' 28' ltl84)'

allp op. ll; Nrn'llr ilu'i'n Ll'l' ttl Eiltta' v' llcll' 'lfili tl'S' 612' 62'l

(lllS2). 'l'hls ls putii"ttt"tty tt'rrtr glveil Sctttrtor l)okis illvutnt role

lrr tho nrloptluu t'f nt"''"ttuiS""tl"u 2lrrll lho Itlnottt:o of n cortfer-

on* ro,rrri on tlro Act' Sco Norllr llobca.l60 l''S' nt 62?'

I

,



i

l6

pr'ocess is o;telt, if l.here is crlrrrl ncccss' if l'hcro nrc tl(t

irn,'i'iu,'., rlii'cr:[ ,r itrrlirect, tlttrtwn 1p to keep sonleotte

i,"r-r,rti,,g or hlving thcir votc -corttltctl, 
or,rcgister-

iug,"*t,,,tuvcr tl,e pt't'io* mtty lnclrtrls" (i0irt')'^ In' his

"ii", 
-,, frng ns "1i1he potil'icrrl process lcnrlirrg [o ttotn-

inuti.rr ,r clcclio, ti"l : ' ' etlirtlly opcn.to p.rtleip:r-

tion by tltctnllcLs of t clnss oI citizclts withtlttt regol'(l

to t'itcc, crlltlr, ltt'tnirgrllrgc tnittori[y" tltcrc ctittkl ttrlt

i* ;',,-iiuui,rt oI ab[itlg"ente-nt of l'ho riglrt to 
-vote. 

rttttler

il,u u,no,,,l,ttcttL" (t2ilColrg' ltcc' S?120 (rlally ctl' Jtttte

ia, lrlgzl (colloquy lrcl'wccrr Scn' l)olc tttrtl'Sctt' Gorlon);

** 
-,,f*n 

irl. at 
-SZttU (Serr' l)ola)); cf' lVhitwmb v'

Clmuis,4l)l U.S' lt lllil'
Sttpporlers of ltnrcrrrleti Secliotr 2 irr l'lre Scttnlo eclrodrl

'S-;;il;;. i;,,.o'" ,,,i lu*starxlirrg of his cornpt'orttise ttnrcml-

trtcttl. ttt Sectiott 2. 'l'lrey rel*rcutcrlly ctnphnsizcrl thul' tlrc 
'

ir,.rri*i,,r, gttitritttttlctl "iqu:ri itcccss" * or 'ttln er;rttl op-

ir"ti,,,tfrV 
'to 

;xrt'[icip:t[e;"' htrt. tlrtrt lt' rlid not' n;4rly

rvlrt:t'e tnirtorit.y rutu" or cnrlrtirltrles "fniled to pnrtici-

pltc givctt tttt eqtlttl opporlrtrrity'r:rr [o tlo so'r 'l'lrcse

st,rtcr,;on19 tlctngtrst'rttto ihnt tltc srt;tlmrtcrs of Settltor

t)olc's ctttttptrltrtise 'otl'it"' 
of urnctlrlctl Sccl'lon 2 shurcd

Iris cottstt'ttcl.iott of l[s terms' Accorrllrrgly' tlre contrnl

issttc rttrtlcr tttltctttlctl Sccl'lon 2' tts tll llarl'icipnrrts in

t7

llro Serrnle flrtur ttr:lrttl'e ttgt'cul, is wlrellrcr a r:lr:rllcngul

*i..frt,,i fr,'acl.icc "t'esttlLltl in tlt" rlcniul of eqntl ftccl,ss

il;;;y lrlursc t,f lttc trlcr:lorttl proces's for tttirtorily gr'(ttrlr

nlclttlrttl's" (lietratc llcllrlrl' 30 (crnptl:rsis urlrlerl) )'ro

il. 'l'lte fot'egoi,,g tli'*tt''sit'tt lttit-kes. cleatr l'lrrrt rr;lpcl-

lcrx crr irr chriurirri [lr:rl' rlisl'rict cortrl's finrling [h:rt tlre

,i,tfdn*,r,f,or rllstficr plnn rlitrrl'es hlrrck voles is sttbjr:ct

to Fod. tt. Clv. t'. irzi:r)' ltftrt' t'o l)is' 2l' 3t-r-il(i' l'ikc

;,;il,; cnrrse 1,, ti'o iun' o[ tot'ts' lltc tcrttr "resttlLs"

fi,,i;;; ;tr evnlutttlotr of llte fncl's ltr lighl of [lre pttr-

tt'fho lcglnlntlve bnr:tgrorttrrl to nntcnrtcrl Sr*tlrrn 2 ttlso tntlkt:s

thlo polnt clenr llr nrrt'thir wny' Untlcr utttettrtcrl Ser:tlon 6 of lhe

l"i, i-r.i",fi,orrs wlth n *lstriry .f rllscr'rlxrrt'rtt tortchltrs trlx)rr

votlng nrny nuI obtnlrr rtl't"t"nl [t' ot'ft'*"e cllnn6cs trr thr:lr ek:cJirrn

tnwr urnt lr^vc the aftc,,t of cnrrrrng n r.otr.grossrrrr lrr ttrc Itrsir.l.rr

ol trrlrrrrtltlos *rttf, ,o'f"'tf io tlrelr irerclao of-tho frnnclrlsa' Cily ol
'tnl"innrt. 

v' llrritr:rt Siolor, {G0 t''S' 126' l:13-lllG (l!'83) 3 llccr t'

llnitedslaler. 426 tt;. ;tl'0, l:t? (tg?o)' 1'he tcslsltrtlvo hlstorv of

nrttonrh:d Suctlorr z, f"'*"'ui', t'onclrtalvcly rlrows tlrnt ilrrl Scr:tlon 6

,l"i.,rrr:"rrf", "tr,uiu.,l 
rru. rr6t trrctrr;xrrnterl lrrto 531[loll 2' Scnnto

lklxrrt 68; irl. ut f O'f rr'Zi I tl (Srrl4rlornettlnl.Vlrrrvs of Scn' llntch);

128 (hng. ltcc' llllS4l (tl'tily ert' Jurrc Zil'-lt)82) (rarnnrkn of llep'

Sonsettbrcnner rvltlt ltcp' iiti*nttl' cotrcurrtttg); irt' rrt 5?006 (rlnily

ed. Jurrc l8. lg82) (srrn. t<anr,c,ty); id' nt stl$30 (rlnily crl' Jrrrre l?'

ft;t (Seri. lla(:onclnl) ; 2 s*n'ilo Ilatril.ga B0 (Stnt.rnattl' of Sot'

l)olo); I Setcls Ila'rtirtltt 4l'l (tcstlrnotry-of larughlirr Mtl)orr:r[l'

;;;,tit;t; llogkrrrnl l)ir"' A{ll'Ll); id' ,.t d41l (tes]lnronv of Mnvor

,r;;i,. Mnr-shy; At. r,igOt (tcnihnorry of Ar||rnrrrl l)crfncr); irl. nt

8!tl-802 (collorlrty bctwer:tt llcp' Scnsurlrtotllltlr trnrl Sctt' (lrrrssley);

id. at 1264 (colh"Iri l"f*t'utt Sttbr:irtnttt' (kttttrscl ilntlttrnn rtrrl

Jrrllus L. Ohnnrbcrs.'l'r'os', NAAUI' t'cgnl llcfensc l"rrrrrl); irt' nt

irii-inZc (l'rcpnrcrl Stntcnrerrt of Nnllrnn Z' l)crslrowllz' Attttrr'

Jorvlslt(lorrgrcss)',l.hcScnnlcrc;xlrlcxprdtslyatnlostllnt..IpIltltt.
ults coukl rr,rt estulrllai, n sucu,ur 2 vhrlrruorl rrrcrely by rhorvlng lhnt

n clrnllcrrgcrl ,onp1rr"tlt"""r:nt r t r ltrvolvetl n rclrogrcsslve cllcl:t

on tlro lmlltlcnl atrctrgllr of n nrltrorlty grorrp" (Scnnte lklxrrt 08

n.2241 .lrt othcr wt'r:th, r'l'llc a retrogleuslve cfiect ntny lrc rclcvnttt

ovlrtotlr:o, nccullt' ntrt cltect. ls ttrs lolrclrstolte rtf tr Scr:tlon Z lnrllrlry'

. Whllo sorllo cr)llrts hnva strirl thut rctrogrosglott trllrtto nrny vkrloto

ntnctxlerl Scctkrtl z, ti"'so t:ottrtrr ttnve fnilorl lo cottshlct' the rtlxrvc

lcglslntlvo hlstory. Soo'ii'f"Lu't v' llyrao' ?'lo lr'2rl l:t$8' 140? (?th

(:lr. t$8't), celt. denlcrl, No' 84-62? (Jrrrre S' l!ltl6) ; llll,sktg v' Olivct''

fOE P. Srrt,p' l{?8, 1482 (M'l)' Aln' 1083)'

tr h).!t., 128 (l0rrg. Itoc. S$G66 (rlnlly crl' Jrrnl. t0' 1082) (Scn'

f frr*ili ttccortl, i,l' rtt Sti600 (rlnllv t]:l Jtttt:^-t';- 1'f L*ff.:;
;i;;;'(iitl,e l""r'o to bc rlccklcrl ttrtrlcr tho resrrlts tost ls whether

ttro grlitlcul llr(t(xlll$os nro crltnlly lrt)cn lo rtrirrorlty voklls")'

ri 128 (hrug. lter:. SG6GO (tltlly crl..tttnc $' 1982) (Sun' l(ennuly);

id. tL Sli66? (Sen' Stovctts)'

tt ll.U.,irl. nt 56??9 (rlnlly crl' Jrrtro t6' l$82) (Scrr' Slrcctor)' 
.

ir Acc.rrl, c.g., iil. nt S0$'l? (dnlly erl' Jrrnc t0' 1082) (Strn'

f:rngrtoy);'irt. rri S0?l? (rlnlly erl' Jtttta l4' .tt'82) 
(Serr' 'lbwor);

id. nt Sli?l?-SriZtB trtritti etl Jttttc l?' 1.982). (Serr' Movnlhnn );
irl. nt Still6'l (Sen. fun"ntiv); iDirl' (Serr' llelllrr); frt' nt S?ll0 (rlnlly

erl. Jtttre 18, 1082) (Son' Moi'e"bnrrnr); id' nt S?lt8 (Stn' Snsser);

irl. nt S?l:t8 (Scrr. ltoher'l llyrd)' As 'Scnntor ltobert llvrd prrt lt'

"[tllrc lurv cccks to ;,,t't-oct [tto-ttgltt l'o vote' not the nbllliy to lrc

gunrarrtcerl clcr:Jlon'" fDId'



l8

nosos of l.lre pollcy being set've(|. Cf. Itlell'opolitatt Eilistttt
Co. v. I'ANIN. 460 U.S. ?li$, '174 (l08l) (cotrstruitrg

lernrs "'cnvit'(tlttltcntttl alfecl'" tttltl "'ellvil'ottlttcnlal
itnpucl'" in light of "l,tte colrgrcssioltnl conccrtrs tlral, lorl

to l,he enacttttett[ of N Itl'1\" ) . 'l'hc r;ttestiott ttntlor
ntncltrlctl Scction 2--wlre[hu' tt pttt'lictthr aleetrtrul prrtc-

tico "rcsttlts" ilt lhc rlenill of "cr;rt:tl llcccss" to I'he polit-
icrrl ;troccss-l.lrrts c:rlls for tnoLe llt:ttr a f:te[ttttl coltcltt-
siotr not ottly becttttsc (krttgre.ss cscltcwcrl t'elittttce tt;xltt

:r "rngclr:rttic:tl ';loint coutttittg' tlevicc" [o t'esolvc Sccl,lon

2 ctlints (Serrntc ltcpor[ 29 n.llB; sce l2B Corrg. ltcc.
S(i048 (rltily erl. June l?, t982) (Scn. (h'lsslcy) ); brrl
rrlso becitttso tlrc rtttrlet'ltthing l'et;rtlrcs rt utt'oIttl unttl-
ysis of the chnlterrgcrl eleclor:tl ;troccss, :ts lttfortrretl by

its :tctttrtt o;lrtt'itl.iolt, lnclrrrling l.ltc ttoltqttultllilfulc, furtt

rrrrrlcttitrblc, f:rct, that tr nutrtct'icill tnirr0r'i[y trtity o.rcrcisc

srrllsl,ultirl, ntul sotttctinres rlccisivc, ilrllrrcttce ttltott l,lte

proccss. Scc llllrilcolrb, d63 U.S. art l4!t-16!-r''o I'he Courl.

h:rs rccogttizerl itt t v:tt'icly of othct' sittrntiotts tltttt tt erln-

clrrsiorr lxtscrl t;tt'gely trpon [lre l;4rlieltion of tt rttla of
Irrrv I.o it pitrticttlitr sel, of ftrcts is n legttl, ttot n facttt:tl
conclusiott.rt lrr ntlrli[loll, for pl:rirr[llIs ns well ns rle-

" Sco, c.g., ll'hitcotrtb, d0:l U.S. nt ll'r0 ((ootnolo onrlltcrl) (whcre

"ghr:tto v.)tc$ wot'e crltlcnl to l)r:ntocrttllc t'nrty Etlccei! t r r lt
sor:trrs rtrrllkcly thnt tho t)ernurntlc l'nrty couftl ntTorrl to ovcthut
tlro gtrclto lrr slntlrrg lts cnntlhlltes"l; lhtoa v. lloot'c,6:l!t F'2rl at
ll6:1, lttr6 rr.4 (rrotlng thnl, lrrcnl volors "lrnvc n strrtltg nlllnlty for
irtr:1rnfuerrl.s,, ntnl t[nt enclr cnrylftlutc's 407o [lnc[. r:onrtltltertcy
,.3r1rrxrt [o lgrrlr.lr! rvltfu lrrrprrnlty"). scc nlso .scnl1ort Y. u2ftnrrr, No.

P-tll-,10-CA (l'l.ll. 'l'cx. Jnrr. !|0, t!18{), rrltil rrtlr ttortl' 'Sllrr&c v'

Scrlrotr, No. 8:l-l82ll (Or:t. l, ltlS'l); pnge 22 ltrrte 4ll, irtlrr'
rr Contlxtl'c. c.11., llttt lxtt' & llout, l'ublishct's, f flc' Y' Nrrldon $tilcr'

prisas, No. 8il-llilt2'(Mny 20, l$85), utlp o3r. 20, nnrl Stlicl'larrrl v'

ll'rshinglott, No. tlz-1664 (Mny 14, l!ltl4), rllp o1t.27'28, wlth ll'rrirt-
t,righl v. lVilt, No. 8!l-112? (.Inrr. 21, 1086), gllp op. l6-l?, nnrl

l'ollott y. Yotttrl, Nrr. 8!l-$6 (Jrrno 2(i, 11,84), sllp r4r. I l-ltl &

rr.l2. Sec Bcrrcrnll y llostt (iotp. 9- (lortslrrrtct s lltriott ol .lltl|ilul
Slnlr:s, lttc., No. 82-t24A (AIr.30, ltltl4). ln tlrls res1rcr:i, tlre ln-
qttiry ltntlr:r nntottrlcrl Scctlorr 2 la slllrilnr to tlro tylo of ntrnlybls

ilrnt ||ppelltrle corrrls folkrw trr rletcrrrrlrrlrrg whcthcr n Inrtk:ttltrr
nrtjrrrllcatlva proccrture.ls congisterrt wltlr rluc }Iocess la.g., lvdlett

l0

fenrl:rrrls,,tlrc slukcs-in tcrrns of ittrlt:tr:L ott ftlttlt'e
citfics lltll frrtrrr.o conrlrrcl,---ru'e loo gt'L!;rt to cttl,t'tlsl, l.hrltn

llrrrrlly l.o tlro JtrrlgtncnL rrf l.he tricr of fztcL" (llose Cor1t'

v. Cittsntrtct's Uttiott ol llrtiletl Slolas, lrtc', No' 82-l24li
(Apr.30, 1984), slip op. 16 n.l?;scc fil' lt l6-25)' Wct'o

l.hc' rrltirn:rtc issttt: tltttltlr atnettrlul Sccliorr 2 slrnply tt

qrrestiorr of filct, lrlrrirrlills woulrl bc rlisrrhlcrl ft'ottl rlllrrr:-
tivoly c6nllcrrgirrg rlecisiolrs lvllol'{!, {)n *, csstttl.iirlly

sltlrilnrrllcss l,iisis, ttrc corrrl, rlc[u'nrirrerl tlurI tlrg "tot:tlil.y
of Lhc circtttttsl;rnt:cs" tlitl rtol. stt;l1xtt't thcil' c:tsc' At:-

cot'(lingly, bccitttsc is it r:k:ar llrrtt :ttt :r1l;rcllttte cottt't

,n,,rt irtiti,pcnrlcrr[ly r-cs.l,c nrixcrl r;rreslirtts .I f:tcl, :tnrl

lrrw (lJo.rc Cot'1t., stip o;r. l6),l,lris ()ottt't' is trol lxrtttrrl by

llrrlo 62(n) iri rlcterr,irrirrg rvlretlr.r l'ltc ttrttlli-tlrrrttrlx:r
rlistr.icts in l.hc lll82 r.t:uPp.)t'tloltrnonI pltrtt vi()ltrlcs sct:-

llon 2.rl

It.'l'hc tllslrk:t (iorrtt lttlsnppllcrl'l'hc l"nclot's Approprl-
nlc'l'o An Anrrlysls Of Appcllecs' (lltllnr (lf llrrlnrvflrl
Vole llllrrllorr

Irr volrlirrg llro rrso of rrrrrltl-ntc|rrhcr rlisllicl.q in lhc

1082 rcnltlrorIiontttcnt plrtn, tlte rllslrir:t, c('lll'1, lnil(lo Ilvtr

ftrnrlntlcnt-nl ct'rors in t:tlttstt'ttittg tttttl nplllyirrg :rttrettrlerl

secl.ion 2, oithcr of rvhiclr is sufllclcnI to lcr;uit.o revcrsitl.

Ii'irs[, tlre court foullll il viotrrtiott rlf llrc sl:tlttlc itt tlrr:

v. Naliomnt Atir. ol llnilinlion Slluipol'r, No' B'l-t'r?l ('lrlrrc 28,

l$86) ) nnrl rvlrelhar o gl.nta tnrv vl||lntos lhc l.'iIst Atttt:tttltttlttt

Estnbllslrrncnt Cl|lrrsc (c.11., llnini flnlirls Sclrool l)isl' v' llrrll, No'

8il-lll!0 (.lrrly I, t086)).
rr.t'ho rloclslons of ltrls (lrurt n|nl thc lo$,r:r rrrttrl.rt lxrllr lrtlfrtrc

tiity of ltobila nnrt nftr:r p:rss:rge'of nmcnrlerl srr:Jll)tr 2 itho tttnkrl

lhls poluI r:hnr. 'l'!resc rltx:lslotts lttrve etlgagcrl ln n firr nxrrtl

*nr"irlr,g rovletv of ' 
rllslrlct c,ttrt's ntrrtlysls t1:rlt n,frli<:ati.tt

0f lltrlc 62(n). rvhlch nSrlxrlkxrs nrlvocrrlr: hero, rvotrll ;xrrlnit. srx:,

c.g., lYhilaotnh v. Chntit,'10$ U.S. nt 144-ll-16; Jrtrtc; v' (iily ol
l,nblnck.72.l lr.Ztl $04. ll8:l-:ltl{i (!'rllr (llr. l$lt4); llcnilti:t,65!l l,'.2r1

nt l2$8-t2?l 1 Daoii v. (lnrrdrrrn, 6fi!l l".2rl 02:t, $2I-931 (6th (ilr'
l0??): flrrrrfor v. Ilrr,ridrrr l'nlish I'olia,- Jrrrg. 6lt8 l"'2rl lt0!)' lt12-
lll:l (6th Clr. 19?6). 'l'ltc cotttt lt Vtlttsqll.ez v. (iily ol Abilcnc,

72fr F.2i t0l?, l02t (6th (llr. 1984), thus ert'crl ltt rlntlntE tlrnt' nn

rultlnrnte sectton 2 0rrdlrrg ls n questlotr of fnct. 'l'ltt: crrttrt rvns

lnlct$len ns to ttro cetrtral questlon to bo nttsrvcrcll trrrrler ths

rtntule. I'ngca l4-l?, ;ttPra.



ahscnco of evirlaneo l,hnl' 

ZrLo 

"'o"'tr'" of the rnrrll'l-

nretnbcr lcgisl:rl.ive rlisl.ricl-s chnllcngcrl lrero rlcnierl tnl-

trority volct's att er;ttnl opportttnity kr pattleipttc in llre
*l,n,r.,i*ul ,t'()ccss. S-econtl, [lte c,ttrl' atrlllltctl illr erl'(ttroollS

Ounrir.in,i of rlcinlly poinrizerl voling, otre Jtrnt' tttlscon-

"oiu,t" 
tlto ,t'o1rct' foi'ce of tlrtrt critet'ir)rl os llll elcmottl' of

n sttecr:ssfttl Scltlon 2 clnilrr'
l.n'[l:rclrofUrcrlisl,rictsislttrttlIitlrentllerrlietricl,.

tIotvcver, il, is lir.lnly scttlerl tlr:rt rnrtll'iruetrtlrer tllstrlcls

nrc ttot. ilrhc'arrtly rinlnwfrrl' Setrnto ltclxr't 33; lPhilq

atZ U.S. at ?65; Wl/.ltcouilt v' Clumis, sxl'rr; to9 
-o!:n .?

Sctrnlc llca/rngs Bl (stntctrtcrrl of Setr' t)ole)' Wlrlle it
is l.rtto [h:rl, itt eaclr of the rlis[r'icts tr[ isstto lrclo it wottkl

llolrossilrlc[ocl,eatcone0rtlttlt.csitlglc-lttcttrllerrlislrlcls
wilir clfccLive bl:rck vol.irrg rntjori[les ( seo pngcs 3-6,

st2,'fl), tlris point eitnnol, ba rlisposilivc' Minority votere

hr,ro i,n riglrt to tlre ct'elliott of slfe elcctornl tlietrlcts

inu, oty l,o.,i,rso tlrey cottltl fr:nsi5ly lxr rlt'nwtt' lVhilwnilt

v. Ctiattis estnhlislicrl that pritrciplc prior to l'ho l0B2

arnelrrl|lrerrl, to scctlon 2, anrl lhc ('lottt'['s t'ceeltI slllllllltlt'y

alllt'nt:rttces in lhuoks v. Allaitt, No' 88-18(i5 (Nov' l3'
ioga), attrl Sl.rrrlcc v. Saannon', No' 83-1823 (Oct' l, 108'l)'

lravo rl*rtli'rrrcrl tlrnl 1u'l,ci,to ,ttdcr ntnenrletl Sectlon 2.tt

2l

Nor cnn iI bo ;lrcsttttttlrl witltutt tttoro l'ltttt "sitfr:" st::tls

for nritrrrril y olJictiltolilcrs wottltl ncecs'su'ily llo in tlro'ln-

terasls of tninoril'y ;;';t' Sr:e l/rli0ctl Strlcs v' llouxl ol

Stparuisnlo, fi?l lt.z,i'onr, ona (6ilr Ulr' lt)?B)' Ac-

corrllngly, if tlra "g'ii'"'uou;' of tr;r1le*llr:ctl' clititn is sirrrply

thnt, Norl.h (l:rrolinn t'ttn*o tn ttso ntttl[itttctltbct' rlistricts

wltero "tltet'c arc strlliciotlI conccn[t':rtiotts of bl:rclt vtll'crs

to fornt rnnjoril'y f in"ft tiugfc'tnetn}cr tlistrlcls" ('l'S'

ipr,. ,i"1, ii,'oi" i-i"t'"**'"i'ity fnlls slr,rt' .[ estn'lislr-

lng n violntiott.rl
b. Moreovcr, itr tltt'ec of the clrnllcngerl rlislricls' hltck

c:rnrlklntes .,,1r1,o,'toti by ltre blnck- cotntnttnity lravc lrcett

*i"-i*i ,r.acr'tl,o clr:rlli'rrgol plan in rttttnlrcrs ls gt'enl' ns

'or 11t'calcr u,n, ,ro,iiti i'o'e"1'lctctl rtrtrlcr t nittglc-ntr:ttrbet'

i,fr,'it, "r,,f 
lrlack votc"s-lrnvo wietrlcrl ittflttcnco ovct' ol'lttrr'

tr"* .1,*r,, rtn,lcr Stx'llt'tt 2 to 11'o 6lsl1tlolr ol "snfc" ntlttorlty-

conlrotlorl rllntrlcts. o'ott- tuttu"' otlrcr rrbjcl:llvs f111;lot'$ rrrlrtrllrttl'c

lo tho linrlhrg ,,f ,r vlt'iJlt"r of Scr:tlott 2 ttttth:r' tha "tolnlity of tlrr:

clrcrrrrrstnrrcc"." uur,rrrnr, ns wl! o;pltlncrl ln orrr brlcf (nt 8-!!l)

ln (,iity (iottttc.il 
". 

X"t"i"''"', ccrl' rktrilcxl' No' tl'l-62? (Jrrrrc 3' l!l8l-rl

(n coly of wlrlch h""'i;;;; 'scrvul ugxrn the pnllkrs)' crcntl,rt.f

"r,*.lr",,irr 
fty dlrtrlctr n" o "tnttnt 

of lnrv ls lrtnl4rt r'}rlnte lo

remrxlY n Soctlon 2 vkrlntion'

lr'l'ho rllstrlel. rrrttrt corrct:tly tccognlztrl thnI n lnrvIrrl ntlrta

1xrtft'y ragnrrllng o pu'tl"tttnt ot''ttttut irnctlr:c ls crrtllk:rl lo rvclglrt

(lVhllconlt, lO:f U'S' nt l'10; rcc llpltntn Y' 'Sr:rrtl"'r' 'l6li ll'S'

!l? (1082);, l,rrt crrctl iry ttlt*re[nrtlhrg itrc Norllr (irrlolirrl yrlk:y

agnlrrst spllttlng lngi"fu[l'o rllstrlcts (J'S' Alar' 'llln-60rr) ' 'fhr:

r:.urt ncknowro,lgo,r ti,,,t i.tirc .qtnlc nrklrrrerl Inlrly ;xrrsrr,slvc trvl-

donco tlrnt tf,o 
",f'rrfu-""tt"tyi 

i''tit'y wns wcll-trstlrlrtlslrerl trlskrrk:nlly'

i,",i-i*rU."tc frrnr:tlonrtt 
-1*'t;*'"t'*' 

nntl rvrrs ln lts origlrr$ c"rn-

ptototy wllhorrt raclut tt"tntintfun" (irt' nt 60n)' tlrrt tlrr: rnrrrt lrchl

thnt..tlrntnlllrccntnolt'rclevnntnnnralterarlrlvclrr;rl.rllrtllrlsl|r|r.
tlrrrlnr lcglslntlve 1'tn"; titit'l ltccnttsc lhc hglslntrrrc chosc 

' 
l"

"irfft'-*,trrtf* 
"unl7 ,'ltt"t'noce'qsnry to tnr:cl poSrrrlatlort rlrtvlnlkrn

reqttlramcnts or [o oi'lnln $6 preclcnrnttcc" (il'i'l' (otnplrnslc

ntrhxl)). Thnt ,on*uttl"o ls t'tntrlty- ltt error' 't'hc fu:t thnt lha

slntc nrllrorcd tt' ll"';;;it;y t''""pt whcrc.nt!(:ornnrv to etrsrtro tlttrt

ench vrrlor--blnttk nnti t"l'ltr:-lrrulf ltls volo trttttttcrl cqrrntly nttrl trt

ettsttre thnt tlrrl .o"nt"'l.tit'tntorrt pltltt dkl rrot l:llltst' lt t'lrtt'ogtesrlon

ln thrr lxrlltlcr,t "t.u,gil, 
,,i rrrn,,r, v,rtcrr (nc. lrnge l? nrte !l!1. rtr,r'n)

rtttcty coltnLs llr ltro stnte's fnvor'

.t ln Scrrtuol, thc rtlstrlct eottrt roJectrxl n Sc'ctlon 2 clnlrrr thnt

r|rlrrorlty voters wer.o ciltltlcrl to n "'snf(,' dlstrlct lrr rvhlch llra

nrlnorlt! Dopulrtlort nppronches G6/' of tho overnll Jx4rulntlo.rr"

(N<,. t'-Rt-4i-CA (tt.l).'l'cx. Jnn' !10, 108{)' nllp op' ll-12)' tlurlor

tire r:trnlk:ngul plltr. rrrlnorlty vott:r8, whlle not gunrnntearl tlro

nbllliy to etrlct one n representntlvo of ttrclr clxrlce' were fortnrl to
l.oro,.i n signlllcnrrt hnPnct" anrl to ..plny plvotnl rolcs lrr ko, clcc-

llotrs" ln l.wo hlgh nrhrorlly tntpnct rtlstrft:ts (id' nt 16)' Slmllnrly'

lrr llr,,okr, tho l,lnlntllts irrgcrl thc threc-Jrrdge rllstrlct cottrt- to

".outo 
n corrgrosslonnl rllstrlct witlr n G'l% blnck ;mDl|lt|tlon nllnl-

-,,rr, un tlro grottttrl thnt, her:nrtso of lorv voler reglstt'tttlrrn nltrl

tu.r,,r,,t nurrng blnckr, tlroy worrhl lto urlnbte to clcct c[rrrlftlntos oI

ii,ot,' "t,"i,," 
,rttt, n lcsscr lrcrcerrtagr:' tn re1octlng lha ettlxtr-

rrrnforlly plntts prolxrserl by llx: lilnlnlllls' tha court,trotcd tlrnt

"tnl,,urudo,t $ 2 i t * rl,rcs itot gttnrnntco lrr lnsrtre 4r:slrcrl rcsttlts'

nrr,l lt g,ros tro fttrtlror tlrnrr to nttortl hltck cltlzcns nlt orlttnl o;r1xrr-

i,,tfj, i, grnrtlclpnte ltr thc lxrlltlcnl prrrcess' (No' C(:82-80 Wl(-{)

(W.ti. ftlss. Apr. lG, lg84), allD op l6)' 't'hls Oorrrt's slrlrlntnry

nfilrr,np."u ln icoilort nrrtl Brookr estnbllslr tllnt rnlnorltlol do rtot



22

Benls ns lvcll. Even sinco lg?3, hlilck voters lrr llouse

l)istrict 23, rvlrrt ,r,,t,o t'l' S$'Sy" of 
-thc lxrptrlntlorr nrrrl

z[-;li% of l.iro l'egislercrl ""to'", 
lt:tve cler:terl t blttek menr-

her ,f l_ha l.hrce-pni,"nn ,lel,,gntiuu. Irngo 4, cupra.r'. Itt

ll6rrsc l)lstrict 21, tho 21.8y,, ful1ck trlitrority, constilttt-

ing 16.l /, of Llte registcrcTl votets,-cteetcrl n blnclt l'cpl'e-

,oitntino to il.s six-ircnrber rlelegnlion in l0B0 ttntler n

,,,frti"ntinfly-irlurLical 1'retlcccssor [o tlre clrnllanged ;rlnn

(.I.S. App. lgrr) nn,l i'cclccterl lrhn in l$82 tttttlcr llto

"i,*ir"nglif 
prnu. Pagcs 3-4, supt'c' J'ho rlist'rlct cottrt's

crror is cven clcrtt'e,I in lloi'"o l)islrlct 30' ln thnt rlls-

i,'i"t, *rt,urc 26.1/o ol llro lxtpttlrttion-is btnek nnrl 20'8y"

of tho tegistororl vo[ers nro blrtek, n black cntrdirlate wns

elccterl to tlro Iive-ntember rlelegittion ilt lll?4 nntl re-

clecl.crl in 19?6. In 1982, untler the clrnllengetl plnn, lwo

iri,urL ,'o1,,'esetrtn[ivas , or' 4O/o of thc tlelcg:rtlon' rvet'e

clccl.etl. Pngc fr, strpt'a. lly contl'ust, ttlrtlcr tho tlt'cr-

lrittive plltt fttvorerl by npJicllccs,- in.cnclr of Llresc rlis-

t,icts blarck voters wi,,rt,i'1rc r'clcg*lcrl t, oltc' slrrglc''

inuinl,o,. rlisl.ric[ with a largo bl:rck nrnjority. 'Ihe nbility

of 5lar:k votcrs tr contest. Il,c rernnlnlng scnts-wortll 1e

lesstltterl-itrtlccll,inllottsel)istricIitOrnilror.i[yvolers
cottkl ltttve tr t'etlrtcctl nttmbct' of delcgnLes-ntttl (morc lttt-

lxrrt{nUy) tlreil' elccl.oral inllttcrlcc otl tlrc otlrer tsltt'cL'

scntntivcs woulfl [e refluecrl." Accorrlitrgly, jrr{gerl almply

on l,tto llrtsis of t.cccnI clectot.ttl ..t.cslltls,,, tlre tnrrl]lrnetttlrer

--,n Tr-1-pprrlntlorr pcrcent.geo lrr tho tivo cotttttlcs tnny overtntl-

rnnto l.ho nctrrnl votlng strcirgth ol mlrrorttlos' ltr:cnttsa tlro pcr-

r:enta1;ri votlng ago t,'i"rlntlu" trr tltcac rllstrlel's tnny bo lorr llrnn

the lxrjrrrlrrtlotl percctltnge' See pngo S nots 6' rttpro'

r.Aa lrrol. Archlbakl cox lnfornrcrl tlro Serrnio srtbcomttlltec'

"[vlotcrs ln n ntlnorll., groop mny ltttve oxnetly llre annto opl]or-

t,rnltlo, for ;tnrtlcl;xttlon as olher votars' evctr t'hotrgh tto morrborr

;i iil gr,u,1, nru elected to ofllco' 'l'tre rillnorllv tttny rtot vrtte tts

o- t t,*. 'l'ho rnlnorlly nrny vots nr n bloc .but nrako ltr lnlluenco

felt trr tho a,,lectl,n'ttf ion-rnlnt'l'lty cnnrl'lntes fir elcct*rn' ln

frnnrlng thelr progrnnw nnd lxrllcles' nnrl ln attpporl nf 1111s or

ntoro cnnrllntcs n6r,lrrst thelr oitporrurl's'" I Srraala llealin1t 1428

(Prr:pnrrxl Stntenranl')' lnrlceri' ln tlro l$82 prlmotlt:l In llottso

I)tatrlct"6 2!l nrrd tt6, whlter rtkl not llekl n cnrrrlklnte fot elch of lfto

29

rrlnlts ltt l.lrcsa rlistricl's lrirvo :tppitt'ctrtly t:ttltitttctxl- ttrtl

,lllrrtc,l'-tttittot'i[y votirrg stlcngtlr'
ln l.ltc l'crttnit,ittg- tlit'iclsllIt'trsn l)is[rir:[ illi itttrl

' Srnofo ilistric[ Z2--bllrck crttrtlitl:ttcs lr:tvo lrcctt lcss nttc-

ccssfrrl. ltrvor l.herc,-i,,,ir,,rur, tho 2(i.6ft black nrirrority

lrr l.lro llorrso ,ttrt,'ilt,'-",,irstil.rrl.irrg lB/' oI lho t'r:gistercrl

,,,t"i:", olccte,l * bi';il tttr:tttber tu tlrs elght-trtcrnbet tlelc-

grrtlortinl!l82,o,ulustrctrlttllltrrckerurrlirlrrto(wlrolrrsl,
i"-if,, gt:neral clccliotr) rcecivcrl }llft' ol tho whilc vol'c

i;; ii,; in'ir,,ary. l'ngr:s 4-6, sur"'n' ltt Sett:ttc l)isl'rk:l' 22'

"irfi"rglt 
Llte 

-2a 
:s il blnck' trtirtorily, consl'il'rrl'i ng x:' 

-Bl:
of l,ho registcrcrl ,,,f ,,,', htts ttot lrccn ublc kr clcct' :r blnck

Settnl.or in tlre f $g0;, ;if'rck ctnrlklrtte prevtilcrl Urrottglr-

nui ft,o ;rcr'lod l9?6-t!)80' I'nges l-r-li' srtpro'r?

opon grsltlolts- l'ngcs 'l-6 notsr ?-8' rrlptt' 'ftrnJ fncl t'cltlfotr:t:s

tlrs eonclualon ttlnt l'Itcks hnvc trrll lx:en rlorrlerl crlrral ttct:c$s- ttt

the clectornl pr.r)cesa i. ir*r" dlstrlcls by vlrtrre o[ ltro nrrrlll-rttenrbcr

;i;; tr*o|;tho rrrnke tti"'r ut" r:nnrlkilto-slnto ls ltsrllf n rellcctlon

o[ nnrl n reslxtllse to ti'o 
'uttug 

strrlngth ol ttro vlrriorts colrstlttlcrlties

lrr n dlsl.rlct
.'Appoltccs aeck [o trtlnlnrlze llre slgnlfir:nrrco of thls otcr:tornl

lrlcces:t on Jho u,uu"tt fift't' to t)h' 20-2?). tlrtt l'tre l!t82 cloetlon

;;;;-il" ..ulrrlnu"ty ibcrrntkrrrnl,,-nttrllrrrtlrrg [hlc c{rnr:hlslon

lo uro rlistrk:t court.'ll,rwovcr, Uro r[strlct court'$ worrls hnve lrccn

taten rxrt of corrtort' 
-'ljho 

tt"''l'" finrllng (J'S' App' $?n (frxrttrolo

orrrlttarl) ) lvrra ns folkrwu:

'Ilrcre nro lrrtlnrntkrna frottr ft'ccctlt lrlstory' pnrtlctrlnrly fronr

lho l0g2 "|".tr,,r". 
il,nt n nroro autrstnrrtlrrl bretktlrrouglr rrl

8tt.:cess "uul,l 
to' lirrnllrrorrt -brrt thot'c wcro oltottgtt obvlorraly

nlrcrrntkrnnl nslrr:cls prcscttt ln l'lro rrtost tr:cettt clu:tlotts trr

tnnke llrnt I trtnttcr rrf sltccr apc'crrlnllon'

trt a foottroto' tlte cottrl' obscrvert thnt lrollr;xrrtlos hnrl olforurl

evklotrce to ostnbllslr r:lther tlrnt' tlru.lg82 r:lc'ctltus }rcsngul n

..hronlthrorrgrr,. u, tiu,u-ir,uy *oro ,.fibcirntkrnnl." 'l'he r:orrrf ntnlcrl

thnt lts "nn{llg" i,, t"*f (rltrotcrl nbovc) "rallcr:ls ottr wr:lghltrg

ol tlrcso conltk:tlrrg lnft'rcnt'os" (irl' nt tt?n n'2?)' lt ls tlrtrs lrrnc-

c|rrnte lor n;4rcllcr:r-i,, n*"urt thnt ure rllc]rlr:t court rrftrptcrl thcir

vlaw lhnLtho lUg2 "f*tf"u. 
shttrrfl [e tllarogarrtcrt ns "trbot'rnllotrtrl'"

ln frrct, ths tnmt ii;;i ttn" lru anld ln tlrlt tho cotrtt rtjr:ctcrl tlte

oplruclng vlew-tt"'i tlre l!182 elcctlon resulls nhoull lxr rk:cnterl

oriau,,"o that blnck cnrulirlntcs rvouhl nr:lrlove cvcn grcntct' $llctesll

ln tlrc "hnmlnent" futura'



24

'l'lris cxlxlriottce entrtrol ln t'ccottcilctl rvlth tlro rlistrlcl'

*o,,r]ti" l,r,i,ling l.htI l'lre ch:rllengcrl lrllrr resttlls ln vole

rlilttl.iott." lttrlcetl, tlrc rlisl'ricI court ncvet' nr[icularterl tt

,i"tt,i,,t'.f rttttler wtrich "t'eslllls" srtclt as llrose cottkl sttu-

;;;:;';';,,,;;iii"r,,n tlr:r[ tho tnttlti-rrtet'llrcr eleetoral svslent

itr l,lrcse rlistricts-wlriclr ls [lro llt.ocerlttt.o tltrtlcr clrtrllcngc

--is "t,u[ cqrrnlly opr;tt to lurr'ticilxrtirllt" hy 'lllrtck votere'

'l'lre cottrt, otrly statcrl-witirorrI l'cfel'cltcc to rrclttrtl resttlls

t,; il ;i [lrJchilltr:rigerl rlistricts--i.lrat. "tlrc success ilrrl.

i,n" t,"u,, flclricvctl tri blnck catrrlirlnles to tlnto" is "kxl

,,iiitiu,uf in tot:rl t,rrirtl'er nntl loo l'et:ellL" to sttppot'l' n

;i;;iiil [hrr[ :t bl:rck ennrlirlnuo's t'ttt:e ls no lorrgcr "n

,ig,iifi",,t ltlvot'so fitctor" (J'S' App' 3?n-!18:r)''o llow-
.--.t 

" 
; irtnpgrrogrrlnlc to cotlr:lrtrla, r|$ solllo r:ortrts lttrve tlotrc' tlrnL

tlra stnte ntttsl;trovc itt"t tttu c"luicn"tl of;xrst rllccrlnrlnnllotr lrna

not tctlttr:crl 1.t," ",,"t"ti lxrtorrtlnl cler:tortrl sllr:coa't ol blncl cnrtrll-

rlntcs. llcilillrnr v. liscolil,i, t;uurrly, ?4g tr.2rl l0:l?, 1046 (rrlh (llr.

1984). 'l'lrrrt nllrronctt tnlstrrtlstrttcs ihe grtvcrnlttg legnl etnnllnrd'

i-ur,,,ir-rr, slrlit.s the ltltrtlcn o[ Pro.f' ntrrl rrx;ttlrr:s prrtvclr tt]ltl-::tn-

l.lrruerl nrinor.ity el"ct,,rnl sr,c"o""-to nvirftl scctkrn 2 ll|lblllty. Nalther

Oottgruss tlor Setlntor llolo hntl nlry nttclt t'crptlrotrlcnt lrr ntlnrl'

I'ngcs l2-l?, sttprn, ntttl lrrrgcs 2?-28' irr/t'rr'

.D Appcllccn clnlrn (Mo[. to t)ls. 2'1, 1l; Su14r' tlr' l0 & n'0) thnt

thtl rlistrict cottrt's ,li"putnguruu'rt of ltlnck okttornl stltccgs lll tltc

"i,^lf"r*",f 
rllstrlets ls crrplxrrtorl by tnngtrngo lrt tlro Sctrnls- ltrn-

Jority reporl., tr lltrcttttrottt-wtrlch' rve ltnvo nrgttcll' cnnnot bo tnkcn

ns rlt:tcrtrtlttntlvo otr nll cottttts' ttt nlry cvottl' thrt rellort tlnrply 
.

notts (Scttnto lltlxrrt Zii rr'f f f l thnt tho olt'ttlun of n "[ew" mhlorlly '

cnnrlklntos ahorrht notle-,i*ui*,r corr<:lrrslve lx-r:uuso lt worrhl onnblo,

eltx:tkrn olllclnts tt' c"ntlc nnxlnrlerl Scr:lftrn 2 by ongincr:rlrr; the

r:kxlkrn of "n 'safo' n'l"n'tty cnntllrlnto'" 'l'ho cnso cllerl by tho

;;;i,; illrrstrute thls cnvcnt' ?'intner' nroso ltl n contert "rilterc

Jlre nrrrll.i-tnr:r,l,o, ,ty"tuu' wns tlevlserl' dcspll'e hlstorlc lxrllcy nrrrl n

slnle ntntrttc ttr.f,ltftfirtg tt' ltl rencJkrn to n rlrnnlntlc votcr laglu-

lrntion rlrivrt rllter:le,t ,,t t'ttt"tt, rvho' nllhorrgh contptlslttt'-fill ;ret'

r:e ttl. of tlrc lxrrlsh's ;u'l"ttottnn' trtrl not 
- 
treen pcrrrrll'terl [o vrrlo

rrntil lt)1i2" (lllaolr V"ti'c,6ti6 F'z(l nt'l-)' Clvert tltr:no clrcrttn-

otnrrcor, nu "nt"ut't tt';;;"-i" lxrlk:y--whlclr colrrehlcd rvltir ln-

crr:nccrl blnck voter ,-ogti't.ntir,," llVallttcc, 6t6 F'ztl nt 0ill.) 
'

llinnrcr rtacllrrcrl m ire"it roccnt btnck elactorftl lrr:coos nc rlls-

lxrslllvc.'"'rfnn"if""" lrnvo fnllcrl t0 prove ttrrrt trlnck cloctornl at|(:rc.q$ lu thcac

tllrtrlcls ls attrll'rrh;io f' lttlr hottr ctlor]s by tlc (lenornl Aa-

26

ovor, tho clccl,iotr of repl'cscttt:tlivcs in.tttlttttrcrs as gt'cttt'

us or gl'ciltor lhrrll i'J 
"fpt 

u*itntte blitck propot'l'ion rt[

il";d,,i,ot,,rr, as itt'irt"'* t)istlicl^s 2l' 2:J' urrrl il!)' is

Burely ttot. "ntitritnll''i Arrrl itr Ilottso l)istrict' 8li :rnrl

Sotritto l)isl,ricl zz, wlrite tlro t.csttl[s artrnittcrlly frrlt slrott

of tr sttttrtl:rrrl of jit'lt'lu"'tit""tl reltrcsolltil[iotr"--"wlticlt
(!ottgt'css t'ejccterl tJ ftre govcrtlitlg leg:rl criteriott--nri-

ruol'ity crrlxlirlfllcs uitftt"l-"'ii or trtvo l'itt 't'tt'"*sfttl 
itntl

;;i;:i;iy ,,,'o *,,,u1,"tiri'u:" In frtct', Ure rlistlict' c('rrrI itself

l,r"t,uto,t lltnl "ltlhir'ly-livo ycttt's aftcr l'ho lirs[ Ellccess-

ful earrrlir}rcics for 1trlfiic oflico by bkrck ci[izetrs ln lhis

",,,ttr,.y, 
il, trls llow bo(:otllo ptlssible for bllrck cilizcns to

lrc clected [o olllce nl' tll lcvcls of slttte grlvtlt'ntncttl' in

North Ottrolittu" (.1.S. App' B?t)'
,l,lrcrllst,r.ictcottrl,nlsoct.t.ctlbydiscrlrttrtirrglhc|)l.ovcn

rnirlrrrity eleclnutl sll(:c(!ss rltt the grotttttl tlrttl i[ wfls "Lr]o

roc0ttt in rclirliotr l,rr l,lro lrrrrg lristory trf cotrrlllctrr rlcrrirrl

of nny r:lcctivo op;lottttnil'it'"1' tt' sttplxlrl thc conclttsion

ecrnlrty to ettglnoer tlro rrlc'r:tiotr o[ "un[e" tnlrrorll'y cnttrllrlltes trr

ilr*;ti " S"*tl,rn 2 ctnlrn' tnrlccrl, the rtistrltt r:rtttt-L rnntle llo nrcll-

;i:;;,;i rrry ovl,tence tlrnt woull tcnrl to srrp;xrrI srrclr r. r:lnhn. More-

,r"t, if," ,llrt.l"t cottrt nolarl thnt "ln lccont yr:ttrr tllero ltns lrccrr

nttrensurntrloltrct.cnsolnl,hcnlrllttynnrlwlllllrgtrcssrlflllnr:kr:i[i.

"ur," 
t,r;xrrtlclpnl.c ln tlre stnte's lxrlitlcnl ltrocesses nrrrl lrr lls

g,rverumcnf, nt gl.ntr: ntxl locnl lovcls'i (.I.S. AIp.'l?n)' 'lllr0 rlishir:I

i urri .li",r,r,,rrtcrl thin ltrt:rcnsctl pnrtlclpntirtn bs:nttsc oI ll's lirrrlirrg

of rnclnl polnrlzntlort (iirirl'), l''t tttnt' tirrdirrg is ll:rwcrl lrr scvernl

rccpc.cts (sco pngr:s 28-Cil, it/r'rt)'

rol'tto cottrt's rensottittg ls nho tlnwcrl ln nrlollter lcslrcr:t' Al-

urorrgtr tho rllslrlct ,,n,,ri r,,n,lo fnctunl llnrlirrgs orr n rlistrlel.-by-

rllstrlct hnsls, lt,lro,, lt" trllhn:ltc legnt itr[c|.t:trccs rcgnrtlittg rnclnl

$ftrc votlng nnrl ttle clfccl on rrlhxrrlty trlcclornt oplxrrtunltlcs on tho

tursls o[ "ltllro oror,,ll rcsttlts nchleved to rlnta lt nll l<rvcls of

cltr:tlve olllco" (J.S' App' tl?n)' l[ lo orrly ott srclt n bnslr thnt tho

.,u,,lt 
",u,t,t 

trnve hr:hl l'lrnt blnck clcckrrnl allcce$s ll "trllnillrrr1" in n

rllstrlct sttctt ns Ilorruc l)isirict' il9' wlrore Lba 26'l'/s blnck ntinorlty

i,"",- lrlff, suSstantlnl wlrltc sttlrp,rt' cler:l'cd '10/o <tl tlrc nt-lrr'ge

reprcscntntlves. 'lb lnvtlhlntc n'a1rccific rtlstrlct ott lltrl htsls ol

gurru,'utfro.l rtntawllo rc'sull"s nL "nlt k:vels ol aloctlvc olllce" ls n

clcnr tcgnl crror' Scc lVhitc v' llcgctlcl' 112 t''S' nt ?6$ (tcqrrlring

nrr "lntcnsoty tocnl rrplrnlstl" of the clcctorll sclrcnto)'



20

thtt "u blnck crurrlitlnle's rncc ls tto lotlgcr n sigrrllicnnl'

;,i;;,t; frtcl.or" (J.S. APp' 3?rr-311il)' 'l'ltnt' rrrling is over-

hrrrnrl. ,1.() [hc cxlcrrt tlxrl, tho cottt'1, ltekl tlr:rt p:rst rlls-

cr.inrinillirxr cilnlrot hc ovct'colnc lly pl.ovirlilrg nrirlrtt.itlcs

rvil,lt corrtctlltx,l'al'y itccess l'o l'ho l'l'occss, thnt rrrlilrg-ls. irt

(r'r'or. 'f'ltc krwct' cottt't, tlecisiotts Pt'ior Io Cily ol tlobila

,loi,o,.tnrtrv c'rtrphttsizerl tft:r[ i'lre itoy r;ttestion- i" -:'u!
rvltetltcr lltet'e rvlts llrtst rliscritttitrittiolt lrttl' wlrc[lrcr tlrnt

rliscrirrrirrir[i,rrr p[evLn[g tninoril,ics fl'olll c,ntrutlly 1titt"

i.i.ig,,,r.l,,g irr tirc politicnl pr'o!-o1s: Sce, c'gJ'' ll-endti."q

65!f l,'.2t1 ilt. l2?0 i l)nttiil, f't-'g tr'Ztl nt 930; Ilrrrrla's' 6(18

lr.2rlrrLll12;Zirnntei','486lr'2rl:rt'13(lti;ttccotrl'Mc-
Ctn'l y v. llandarstttt, 74ll F'2rl I lll'1, I l3? ( t-rth Clr'

irrgai.,, llisLor.ic:rl rliscr.imirr:rtirrr tlrrl. h:rs rcsultcrl lrr

r, 
"ur.u,,l, 

lttwct' tnittority rcgislrirtiott rtt[r:, for ins[ittlcc'

ls lltc rlislricl, corrrl. firttnti tu l'u tltc ettsc ltcre (J'S'

App. 22u-2lirt & rr.22), is trtt entitcly l;rpropt'ittte ctm-

si,lcnrti,,rr tttttlcr nrrrcirrlcrl Scction 2J! llrrt p:rs[ rlis-

crinrinnti,rrr [htt tklcs ttot tlctty lttittot'it'ics cttrrottt ttcccss

l,o l.lrs lxrliticrrl l)t'.rcess citntro[ stt;l;rotl' t violatiott of llre
Acl..r,, Antl t,r tirc oxten[ ttr'lt tlre rlistr.ict courl, hckl thnt

6r As Scrrill.or ltolliil stnte<|, "ltltre thlo contprotnlee lrrs.o tu^*

ug4,li,rr,tl,l, brtt nlirrvs for n cottsklerntkrtt ol yesteirlny lnctorn

,,s'*oll ns ptr:st:ttt rlny grxrtt lnlth eltorts to rctrtody prlrt rrrhlnlcc

tf i1,,, y""torrlny flrctors krttr:lt ott tlre ttcw resrtlt'" 128 (lnr:' lto'c'

SGtlli4 (rlnlly crl. .lrrnc l?, l$82)'
6r.l'lris lrlr[ory t|rny h:rvo lrnrl ntt rllfcct lrt tlorrso l)lntrlel tlo nrrrl

Scnrrtc lllstrlct 22, glvcrl llre rllcctrrrnl rr:srrlts lrt tlrrrgc lllslrlclr;
rr"l,,r"**r ln conrSlnntl., rvltlr ottror [nct.rs, lt nppenrs tr,t to ltvs
*i,ri t,U"r," rxrt of llro alc<:t.rnl pl'ocoss thete (ne. pngcs il2-34' inl;nl '

i:ir.n tr* fnct thnt nrlrrorltlcs hnve bccrr clcrcterl lo olllco ln llorrno

t)latrlcts 2l,zil, nrrd Sll ltt trttrnbels nt tcnst ns gront ns rvotrkl lru

;;i;;i *,to, n nlrrglc_nrcmber nystorrr, ure hlstor.lcnl rllscrlmlnn-

it,r,, fuur,,t iry tlre rllrrtr':t ct'trrt. tloes tt.t nlt,etrr [o lrnve nl]octt'rl

ii,o-uio"t,,.,,t .grportrrul,es t.ot 
'i,r:k 

v,ters *rl.y lrr thrse rllrtrlcts.

6i,l.lre rllstrft:1. rrrrrrl. [lrrrs pllllrrly cril:tl by rclylrrg (J.S' Allt'

2l)n) rrlxrrr ltxrpcrntlvo trtlnrbortrl rcnt nttrl nrrtl-alnglo ohot vollng

ffit,',,,,*,,t, r,i state lnrv' As thc (xrrtrl ltsr:lf urt*l (irl' nt 23n-2'ln)'

tlroso r,xlrlrcnrortts wcro tnvnthlntert rrtot'e thnn n rlwnrlc n3o

(I)rrnston Y. .Scoll, 3:10 F' Srrpp' 200 (!tr'l)'N'('' l0?2))' anrl lltcro

i rr,, bnsis ltt ntrretrderl Scctlon 2 (or krglc) for cottclttrllng thnt thosa

27

p:tst rllscrilttinnl'itttt lnrsiEltr in tho fot'ttt of t'ttei:tl hlrr

votiltg, [lto t:ottrI rel'irlrl ttpott iln olrl'rlolltts tlclittilion of

[lutt eonr:epl, ;ts wo wlll ltlcr cx;llnirr' o o

(kltrgt'css crlrrkPnol lr"'n t'' ;"'to'*rxl lllol'G clc:r r'!;l ltgin-

k;t'i&i"' uf,, ir' luruf i f ,,i..,,,,,lt.i,no,rlrcr {t ist' icl ilig,lnns

;r;r:;',,,i;,,tii* hirve lr:rrl trtr et;ttal oPlo|.trttrit'y lo 1t:tr-

ii;;t;,,r" in thc olo,tt"lttt l)t'(rcoss, 0ven. if rnirrorily c:rnrli-

rl:rtes rlirl not witt a- 1"'1*"'t'iori:io slrtrr'c 0f tlrc scitts'n'

i;,r,,g,"r, arlo,tctl Su"'ilt"l l)rilo's collll't'olnis(l ;rrrx:iscly [,
rrnsltre l"lrnt. Sccllorr 2 worrltl gllill'tlnt(:e trrirrrltity volct's

ncccsa trl ttrc clectottrl lrl'occss-nlrl' ettsttt'o viel'ot'ir:'s .foro
nrlrrorll.y eittttlitlttles--,t* tlto Scrtrtto--lkxrt' tklbit[e pl:rinly6

rleluottslt'tttes. l'ages l6-li, $uf"'rr' See :tlso lilr'ryrrs' '168

Il.S. nt 616; l{hilaotntt, ,lO:f 
'U'S' ttt' lt-r8-l5t) (rrrrrlti-

Irxtnrl)cl. rlisl.ric|^s clurllr:rtgcrl for "llteir rvilrlret'tltlre-:rll

,,rjro"t"")."6 'l'lto vli t:Uu"ut lloltita tlecisions of Iltis :rrxl

othor cour.ts bcxr ouI lh;t inultirnenrbel rlistricts nt'c not

ttultrrryfttt wltet'c, tls tlerc, rninority cnnrlirlirtes itt'e ttrtt'

effc'cl,ivcty strttl, oul of lho clcctot'nl ;'tt*css' 'l'he cltxest

^*-***t"n 
k'gnl lnensrtt cs urttltl lruvo nny "u"otit 

tllnct ott tha

mull.lnrolnbor ryslcm. S"o l'tgu" l2-l?' rrrprc (rlinr:rrsrilrg sl'tr' l)ok:'s

conrptotnlso).

rl'l'lrc dlsl.rlct cottrt lrlnlrrly trtiscottstrttcrl lho Hll;rlllicnnt:tt of

(!ongrr:ps' rcJcr:tlon t'i ti'u 1'r:t4xrrllr'trnl reprcsetrtnl'iott slntttlnrrl'
,l.tr* c.rrrt rtisntisscrl tIe "1,r:olxrrliottnl t'epresl:tttntiotr" rllsr:lttllnr:r

ln Scctlfin 211t1 ,42 tl.S'r:',itrfilttr)' n:r trtealrltrfg lrr) trr(ttc tlrnrt-tlurt

tho fnct l.hnt blncks l,,tv" rtt't lxrr:n cleclerl ln ttttlnbcrs ;rrl4xrrlhltnl

in tfiof,;rrlrt:entngo of tht;xr,rrlntlntt "rloos ltttt rrlortc esl'n'lin. [.nt

v,,to ,tttuit,rn hns rcsrrl[crl" i'l's' n1'p' l6n & n'l$ (rrtrt;tlr:tsls lrftlcrl ) ) '

'Ar rllscussr:rl ntxrvc ii'u,ro' !t-l?)' tlto rllschrltnr:r rvtts cxlrcssly

rlrnltort l.o nvokl unv'"t'"tt tlnl'l'ow ltrl'orpretntlon' trt elTr:r:t' l'hc

rllgtrlctcottt.Lltnalrrtcq,r..'le.ltlrcActnrlttr;xlsitrgn..;lrlrlxrt.llrrnitl
roprouctrhllon Srltts" "intt'tu"t, 

rtrttrer ihnn nlt "orlltttl o;t1xrt tttttity"

slnnrlnrrl, trs (lottgrcns inlcnrlerl'

rtAl Artnnrtrl l)erfrrar cxplnlnrxt to ttle Setrrrlc Strlx:orrtrtrittce (l

Saratn llcrn'ln11s SOn) : "tlio tt-tnrge olpctftrns thnt I ' r ' ltrve

lrcen focrrolng tn n,t' tlrono in whlch the rc'qrtlt o[ tltoso nt-lnl'go

clectlottalsllrrslcnllytostrrrtrrrrttlterrrlnrlrltyvrtlct.s.ltis.nrrtlt
qrrcrtlon o[ whellrer tlray rvlll get nttrro ot krns or rvhctlter llto tnn-

forlty vrtlcra rvlll gr:t nrol'{r or less' lt lu n tllesllott of artnlc ver$lls

rmthlnr."

.I



28

B,:rlogy to l,hls ettso ls l)ttua Y. IIIoora-, sltpt''r'' ln wlrlclr

,f'*'"Ii,t ,,f np1'cnls rtt'ttultl tlo vntklll'y of atr nl-lttrgc

"r-,"rr',-,,fu* 
iri,itf'"t}ti'  oy" black trtinorlly clcclerl otte

metnlrcr to ln oiglrl'-metnbcr'eil'y corttlcil' ltrrleed' in tttnny

c:rscs lrrlor Lo Cil'y ni iiott'it" irrvolvirrg ttlJrtt'ge votlng ays-

tetns whct'e the nggi'egntc of faelot's w.:rs llllqltestlonnhly

les.s fitvot'nblo l.o ''i^;?'il, 
v'ters tlttrrt in Utis clsc--mos0

prrt,ictrlrrrty, wltere' rru' i'iittft 
"f 

tizctt- tr:trl cver been 1:t::91
rrnrlcr Ure systetn-chlllengcs to lfio vollng Plnns--wero

li*,1;*Iili,l;*i'il1;!t'".;;;i,i;;,if,{:;:*
v. Cnn'fsorl., slrl','o; tllcGitt v' (Jorlsrlert

6iltr lr.Zd 277 l6$t'dit.lrliol' Arrrl lt is signi0cnnt thnt

ths Senrtto rnnioliLy ntrtl other srtplntters of nntbntlerl

Scr:l.ion 2 lxrintal tn"r't'oto cascs--irrcltrrling Douc v' M-oora

--ns inrlications of ii,o-*ny in which lhe ncw pro-vls6n

wottlrl opet'al,e. Suo,'''g', 
-Scnat'e 

ltelxrl:t 33; I Setl.nla

IIaarirtlls ?96-?06, i'0i itostintn'ry oI Artnantl Dcrfrrcrl;

iil. lt t?01-1?02 itnitt*1t'y lrcl'rvcol Sen' Mntlrins urrrl

Assisl,*lrt Attorney c"r,otnt lteyrrokls rcgnrrlirrg ?:ya.'
Aecortlilrgly, giron'tltu 1'ruuon cicltolnl sllcccss thrrl' blnck

cnnrlirlntcs t,nru t,u,i-irnrlcr tha rnullinrernber sysle,rrt, tlto

rlistrlct, eottrt crrctl lty colrclttrling l'lr:rt ttso of tlrnl systettt

"resttlts" ln n ,toiti*i of "eqrrat neccss" lo tlro clcclornl

proccss for trtittot'll'los'
2. 'l'lre tlislrict "ourL 

corrtrctly lrckl (J'S' App' l6n)

tlrat proof of racini hloc vol'ing ls Lhe "lincltltln" of a

sttcccssfttl ,nm ,riitition clninr' Sce Scnnle Report ilB'i'

l*L,o (krrrrl explnlrrerl ln lt/ftitcolrD- ('l0lt U'S' nt l6lt)' rvtrero

"tho frrllrrrc of tho ;i;;il'to t'n'o lcglstntlva scots ln pro|xrrtion

to lt.l poprrlntr,n otno?gJ--t'* n" t frrrr-ctft'rr of kralrrg elcctlonn thnn

of brrllt-ln t,rn" ngniulll'oot Nog'uo" -r 
r I [tlho votlng"lxrwer of

gtrctl.o rcsklcut" '""y'ftn"u 
beoricnnc'elletl.orrt' 

r r r bttt l'hla sccnu

o rrrolo ottphomlsm rl't i-'fiir*f dcfcnt nl-ttro ;mlle'" Seo nlc,-lltrilcrt

Jal,ish ()r!rs. v. crr')i,'iii u's' -rl'r' t06. rr'24 (lg??) (plrtrrlllv

oplrrlon) t..ff ,"ung"",ino.-nJ-i,,tt,,w r.nr:lnl llnen, llro wlrlte Ior

blnr:kl votcr r,", rrttro'r""sorr to conrDlnlrr thrrt thc percenlngo of

nonrvlril.es tur wf'lfeoi tlr hls rllstrtr:t lrns-.becn lnctr:nserl")'

It ra crronoo"". i.*"r"., to ct'rtt:ltrtlo. thlt prool ol rnclrrl ltlrrc

votlrrg ntop *ttt';;i';;;tterreprcsentntlon l,gcthcr nre grrilh:lcnt

20

llowevcr, tlro rlistrir:l' cotlt'l' nrlqrtul n. rk{lnll'ion of r:tr:lnl

',rc 
v,[irrg *nrlcr. *i,;:;,";,"i;l' 1xrl.rizrrt.i,n is "stt,sl'att-

lively signilictrnl"' t''"]to'o'o" wltcltevcr "[ho rrsttlls of

l.lro irrrlivirlrrr,l t'ln"t'it'rt *t'itftf ltnve beett rli[fcrcnt tlcPclrtl-

Irrg upott rvltctltcr i; i;";i trcrrrt hclrt-rtrlr('rrt{ orrly lhc rvhilc

voUcts or only trto r'i"tft 't'i"t:- 
i" tlrc elcctiotr" ('l'S' Aplt'

B0n-40t (fool,rtoto t'irtif'fetl) )' 'fltis trtctttts llr:r[ L\von tl

ntilror rlegt'co "f '"ttitti 
Lloc votirrg wortkl hc srllliciclr[ ltt

rnuko ottt. n uit'rutit"':";;;;ttll"*"of wlrctlrcl it ac[rrtrlly

restrlts in hl:rclt ol""itlt'ttf-tiof""r'' li'ot' .ittsktttcc' 
itt :t [rvtt"-

norsoll electiott *f'-'" it"''o it n stntll wlrilc vrilirrg rllil-

filiU: ii't-'-t'i"';';";ii;i"t" ''cceivc*s 
!-rl% ,f rlro vorc in

lho wlrits "n,n'ntt"iri'"ttti 
i'2" 3f. 

l'lre vokr itt tlro bl:rch

cotntntltlity, nntl tlto"l'iuck c:rrirlirlate rctcives Ilte rcvtlt'se'

tho rlisl.rict "ou't' 
*t'iiitl hultl Urtt. lfic cotntnttttil'y is

set,,'ely trrcintly pt'iit'i)t-r' ;ihnt rlclinitirttr is tttr:tccrtpt-

nblo becntts,, " 't't'o']u'*iii "t*t'"t' 
alwa-yrr bc n ritrv corrcln-

tiorr wil.lr rut'o iu';;;"f;iiifi-cnntlitl"t'v of :t tttitrot'ilv

wltoso rncinl ot' "tl;; ;;;;;p:t.l-ttl snt:tll pct'cerrt'ilgc of

llro t,otrrl voling n"itur'iU'tt; " lI'ca Cornlly llrt,:r.ch ol

NAACT' v. (iirv i;';:;;;;k"' zab r'z't l4?:r' t4B2 rr'r6

(rrth Clr. ruaa) [ir"';ii;;J;"" \:.9nu ol t;ntitock'l'i-tlt

F.2rt 2ilit, 2it4 rr,iii i;i,:.-ros,lr ( llillgirrlxrtltitrtt, .!., 
.sPt:-

clnlly r:oneu,'i"gii; scc ?'crt'(tzfl$ v' ("lenlcttl's' t'r8l l'"

to *Inf,n,f, n vtollrIlrtn of ntttenttcrl Sectlon 2' lts 'sottlc r:ottttrt lttrvo

rnlrt. Sco tlctlillnn, 'lag'li'ztf nt l0'13; 'll-.nilai 'Slulr"'r v' llttt't:tt11tt

corrly Contnt'tr,r:rr i''ztr'iiio' l6{i6 (tltlr (llr' t!'tl4)' srtplxrrk:rs

of tha Ar:t stntett ttt"f l'rt'nf t't nroro tlrtrtt trttntcrit'nl ttrtrlctrt:;trrt-

Rcrrlntrrrr nu,t ,n"tnt i,i.,l.'ruirnn rs essorr[r.r t, r:stnhllslr n socl.i,tt

2 vlolntlon. s"" t .s;;;;""1i",i'i,tr Bltl 820 (l'tep:rt'rxl stnlcnrcrrl

of Artnntrrl rrt'r"o'l" iot;tilt;i; l' 0rlg.lrrfll) ("nrrtcrtrlorl str:liott 2'

llfre l7ftilc v' n"o""l"')"ttt'itii"t ('"rt ln lftnt.nrrrnll cntcsot'v of ;rlttcr:s

wrrer.o rrrr:re u .,, ,,ri "iirt',t*'.y"i"n, 
of-prritr.n f,r rnirrrl'ity v.t'r'rr,

wlrcre there r" *rr".iy'",*"." .'""i"r rllvlslorr. trrrrl rvltere it is slrnply

lnrgxr*rilrto lt'. tnlt"''ity votrtta to ltnve nny slgnlllcntrI t4tytllrtrtily

rtttrtcr lho r:lectkrrr t;;i;t'; ;; it l"')-; ntt"''l' e'o'' ii' rrt 28? ( Mctno-

'ntrtlttrtr 'f' 
ltnl,lr d:'tN;;t;' il'o"" itl''' l'c.'lorshl, (lrrrf' orr (ilvil

lllgltts); irl' nt rn'i i*-iittt'tv t't Jt'rtqrrl'r (l' Aviln' Assrx:' (!an'

(lorrnscl, MAl.l)lrr; ,'i;i' "i 
I l8i (tr:stlrnottv of Fr:trrk l'rrtkcr' l)ir''

Votlrrg lllflrtn f''t'i"t'f ' l'n"'ot'' (iotttln' ftrr Oivil ltltghts lltlrlcr

I,rrw).



30

Supp. l:12g, lit6l-1362 (N'D''l'cx' lgB4) (lhree-frxlgo

court) (trlst is ,ul,oiftt' i"tt"h bloc volirrg lrs lrtlly exist"

;;;;;il 
-r,,-u* 

t,, "i'o"i*totrl'ly,rlcfe:r[ lrnlrroril'yl cnirtll-

rlntos") ; tteeotrl, Stlo''rl" v' llplmm' slip op' l0 tr'4'"r

llr,lct' tlro rlis[r'ict "ni"'t'" 
rlcliiil'i,,' virl'rrlrlly tttty clec-

tor:rl tlistrict. irr the c;til; rnighl Le rlcetrrerl to sttlfcr

' srrlrstnnrivcly signillc:rnt,'' i'ucirJ hloc vol'lng' Corrgrcss

llelievcrl ttrnl, thc 
"u,rl,rnry 

wtrs Lt'lte, ltorvever. sce senrrtc

it"frrlrt ilil (in "nl,,*i co-rnnrrrrri[ics" tnltrot'lty cttnrlitlatcs

i'r*"oi"u sullstnnl'ilrl sttpporl' frotrl wltlto vol'crs")'"'

- t' tulru*t voto rlllrrtlon cnscs' n llnlntllt cnn eslnbllsh n prlnrn

fnclocnsettfrncllrlblocvotlng-lryrrsingnslntlntlcnlnlrnlyolsol
votlng pntterrrs thnL ;;il;; th'o rncc o[ .n 

t:ntxltrlnto rvlUr tho

rnce of thc vo[crs. n ,i"i",r,ri"t cnn uI.n lrrtrorlrrr:e lts own nlrrrly,

rvlriclr lnkcs utt,or tu"tni"-i"tt' n"*ttttt' lo.rr:lrtlt n Srlnlntll['s prlntn

fncle caso. F.rr n ttl"*s"tu"' t" n rllllerctrt contcxt' of tha tyle-of

stntlstlr:nl sturlles tl,,t;;;; bi rrsetl' sea llcClatkcy' v' '/'nnl' 
'ltBo

F. srrpp.:138,:152-3?0 (;i';' A"' ioi't)' nn"t' ?6!l lr'2rl 8?? (llth

(llr. l986) (en bnnr:)' ii"-tttt i" ertch nnntysas lrns lrccn nplrovcd'

As ,lrrrllgcs lllt{glrrl,othnm nntt Wlsrlorn lrnvc torcntty olrr:rvcrl"'rnr:o

or nntionnl .r.igtu ttny innttt-" ttt'"t of otlrcr.erplnllntol'y varlnblcs"

Itrclrrrlirrg "nxlrtnlrntori fnctrtt'r t ' ] n'.lnlrrltlvcly obvlotls ns eritn-

pnlgn cxpctrrlltu.u", p'it'ty itt'ittntnrton' lttr:ottte' morllt u'qo rttenattretl

by cosl, rcllgiorr, t"t'".'fti"rliin""tlt'u' r'r rllslnncr: [hnt n cnnrlftlnlo

llverl frorn n ;,ur.tl"ttl"i'1;;;;';;l;; (Jorrcr'-?30 lr'2rl nt Z:tE (lllsgln-

lrntlrnnr,.l.. spcclnlly "*",,..1,,g) 3l'ttc ootnlu' ?'18 l"'2'l nt l'182

(Wlshnr, J.)).
rr Sce I S4tnlc IIcn1ittgc 82t (clrrplrnsls nrtlcrl) (l'rr:pnrr:d Slnlc-

ntcnt of Armnntl D-;l;; 
-(-'iso"tt"n 

2' of t:ottrso' rvlll :r14rly orrlv

ln l.lroso plnccs whare thote ig nlrcnrly an- crtrcorrtiltnry ntrrlrttnt o[

Irnclnll rllvtskrn")' 
' 
Oift* rvltnessrs nlso rlcst:rlllcrl rnclnl bloc

votlng ln lcss nl'solulf-i;;; ih"n thc rllsttk:l' corrtt' Seo id' n[

806 (ttrcpnrerl sh;;t;;..;i- vtttun s' Mnrtlnez' Preshlerrt'

MALDIi:t'') (ou,t't'u'i' nrllerl) ("'It ls a .sll'rtntlon 
rvttcro' rvltatt

cnnrlhlntrs ,,t ,rrnoro'i ;;;;;t; rttntrlttg for tho onnro ollleo' tlto

voi.ers wlll fiT arrrt f"t,' "t'rc 
ftt" tt'ut'untlittnto ol thclr olvlt rnco"')

(clLnl.lon onrlltcrl); ii' nt 64$ (tcstlnrony of Pro[' Srrsnn A' I{rc-

Mnntre (etnphasln "til;til 
i'itn"t"t lxrlnrizntlon 

r r r otcrrl'g whell

cruzens of orre ,n,,lni's;i,up ttttilotirily voto for one cnnrrrrrato nnrl

cltlz.e,s .f ntrrrlher '.niitti'*t'it,,' 
roriftn,nly vote for nnotlrer' I r t

[!'llc trnslc ,t,,r.r*'"o'ni'ii'u'io't Irnt'"nt:rrintlng rnclnl lmlnrlzntlonl

ls to rlolcrnrluu t'r'oii"'"-"t* t" ra' pi.mnty arul e*cltttitc delcr-.

,ttiwrrtlof lrrrllvklonl votlrrg der:lslotla ttcross tlmo ln nlty glvetr cont-

munltY").

3l

If whltc volol's arrc willirrg [o cross laciltl lilrcs itr srif-

IicicnI nilttlb(!l.s [lr:rL ,ilrrinrlr".ity clrrrrlirlutcs lrlol rtoI losc

elcctiotts solcly lnc:rrrsc of tlrcir rilcr:" (Ilo'qas' 4l-r8-[l'S'

;i;rt; it,o,, it it i"tsi'lv irrclc-vttttt wlrulhcr [lrc hltrclt

;;";li,i;i" wout(l h,,ru ii,,i cvon if ,re clectiorr "'atl ,cut

ilili;;;,;d nrrlv tl'c wlril'o votcrs" (J'S' App' 404)' 
- 
lrt

thnl, c:tse, racitrlly lxtlrtl'izcrl voting' to Lhe exlrtttt t'h:rt it

;;i;1t; i"'t-[ "[h; 'vc'rirlirrg 
criteriotr -itr 

v,titrg" |I)ortc'

630 F.2tl lt 1160). lt was lirrnly sctl'lcrl plior Lo l!l82

[f*ti"-i,"t-on ltrtrl l.lrc right' l'o lrc.ttpt'trsclttetl hy tnctn-

;;;; ;i nrry prrrtiertllr grirrp to rvlriclr ltc bel,ttgs or to

purl.icipate in :ttt tlntt'i'uf 1"n"""" tltttt' trtlxitrrizes his

cltnnctrs o[ stlcccss, cithor tis n votcr' (ll' :t ctrtrrlirlitl'c'

ilit-; tlrc principle t'c;rctttully erttlorsul wtts tlrc right

[o prrrticipatc ttt an elccl'orrrl proceqs-to vot.c' lirst lttul

iur'"in,t*t, bttl nlso to join a po[itictl !'-t]tty' 
to plrli-cip:tl'c

lrr lls rrlfrrlt's, to bccotr'rc a cuirtlidnLo llrhitctttr0' {l)il lI'S'

,,i f7o-ifof --irr wlrirfi lhcrc is tro "lrttilt-ltl ltiits" ttgrtinst

tlre opportunity to flrl'icipnl'c (fil' rrt l6:l)'"' Atnctrrlcrl

Section 2 rettllirtrttxf tl'cse-1'rinciples' Scc Serrtttc ltcport

Z.q-ZA, gO. tt thrrs follows ilrul wtrcrc "blittks nrttl rvlrites

alikc hnve rejcctetl l'llce us the ovcrrirling clllerlotr in

,"lirg;;i lDoui,639 r.2rl ut' Ill-rtr-l160), llrcrr' sittce.tttr

"r.i,'1,*,,iif-i*'5ius,, 
cxis[s, "rninorit,y cnttrlirlirl.cs l rvilll

irt turo clmliorrs solcly 5ccausc ,[ tlrcir. r:rce" lllollct's,

{68 U.S. at 628), ,i'ut-tho polil'icnl ptrrccss is' by rlclini-

tluir, "uq,rolly opcn t' pa rlicipntiott".,y rrti ttorit'itrs ll, lil c'

412 U.S. nt ?66; ,ui lyt'itionrl', 40:l Ll'S' tt ll-ril)' lrt

ui*, rro,.ts, ltre lclcv:tttt inqulry is trol. sirrrply irrto llrc

irrist"n"o of bloc voting by t'accl t'ltc court tnttst ltsscss

li"-*l"rt of rttciul prri:rrlznl'iort- ott l'ltc oppor'lttrrit'y- for

i,f,i-f,J [o p'artlclptrte in llre polil'lcnl pt'ocoss' Orrly rvlrerc '

;l* l;;,,;;"i. of rriclul ,'rc v,iing i, cornbt':rl.ion wit' llie

--*o ,rrrr ol ltoltile',4't0 U'S' nt ?6-8o (plurnlltv olrlrrlon);

irl. nt 80 (Stcvens, J', ct'rrcrrrring lir tho iurlgnrcrrt); itt' nt lll-nJ

iMu."f,nff, J., rllsscntlnsli lJfiteil latuith (!ryr'' 'lll0 tl'S' nt lG6-

iii"ii,rrt"[ti oplnhrn) ;"ti"", {26 U'S' nt tnli n'8; lVhitcotnb' loit

tf.S. nt l{9-l{i0; l'avt'i' v' ttiKcithen"l0$ tr'Zd 8!':l' 906 (6th Clr'

iriii'-t*,trdn, r'); 'l'ttr.ncr t' tlcKci'hctr" 4tlo !''2tl l9l' l0? (6th

Clr. t0?B) (llrown, C'J')'



"l,,,ltongoil 
llroculttrc'--.ttcre' 

trtttl[i-ttttlttlher rlirltrlcls-rle-

il'J:":i ff#:I:,f :;''. ',:;il ;. ffi ,.,*--

umisl : l,il llh tlll*!:*r: xs ]i5il* 1 il.;
:fiki';;,;ire':tc'l ttttrlct' single-trtenrlter t

ficttlt *r itrtrtgittc "'l;'"';;i;?n-r' 
i.vrtlitl"l'ing tlrcsc rllst'ricl's

tttrtlcr .(icctiott''*''n'ti"t'ttiiu t't'"t^"rrrrrlirl:tl cs hlvc becn

less stlct:tlssfrrl irr rit-'t"'ili"lric[ 36 :rntl Senttte l)ls[rlct

iz, ri, ", 
r i, I,,., :', t;i:iru t;[*|*l,,iTii -1['..,!l;T,,.,u..1;:

i,.,,,'l:'lillTJ..li"'Jl,i,ll* ii"r' "iii 
r" v'r.i*g suplxrrr." I tr,no

vrl}.'il|.""..l:#,*i#;flifig;;i,.i-t'|[1;i"ifffi
whltc nrrl4xrrt trr llotrso tltlt::,":;';;::'*i,iio ,"t,t. lrrrt ,e lnter"-i;;;;, ' 

i ur.,"'. 
:--:":,',"",,,1' 3,,,t1 lllt" :1";ril.i,, 

'ni'x, 
. 
r" tr'o

i,,.r,r,*",1 lris slrnrc o[_llro *]'l_'I, 
,.,.".,1.r, u,"t wns ctectcll: ltl

ilil,:; ",,,! 
o;1 

1 
"[";'l:,.-:ifi:' 

;l':Iilil" jllll,] ii",vl ""n 
i',*,

Itl82 lrc ngnin lttt:tctts:t: "'l ':::::.'.-.r'-,,r.rnt e*:t[lon ntrrl wns rc-

ltk) :t T[' l lll., ix T[:i J' l ;lf 
't' :ffi I,**i' ili'Jr'l',:il:

;;-i; uro rrr8. r;;,,"#1r".,:;:t:[,,]'i:1,,:;:,,,,iir^," rvns urrr4,1x,Rcrr

il lf:1,"H' J:[Ti"i'i'i"'l' " "' - 
r'] 

-1!1" ::f li# u t'i' I1,1:"il.1

iTlh'l;Jli*'l,,:l:;,lt ff lll l]iii' ii# :I iT *'*q."lt:
lrr tlre lltgg gcnornl'elcctlon, nnrl 

"'%' "nli,ro,r. J.S. A14r. d!tn-4,|n.'

iiii j 
: l; ti,r lrl r; : :n' iiT 

t1,i*; :}ii x' li:',:.*i:' il lll:
i*riil,:rqTffi$$ilg$;1iffi
rotlt oscntntlves lrn

",rto 
lrt tho t!180

l0?8. u blnck rcPtt

llrnn blnck volts (

,*:,,';,1' il"; lll.,fiTl-',f;,1':'iii:i I i]l,:tlxilli]lfrltli'lll:
;;;:;; J q*1,::,. n"Lll}",h'lili:""Jlli;" ;,; r n u,e p, r,,,o, v. ond

rnr:o rccalvr:rl S$'

gntt.rnl "tottt"u'z'"1Jff;#;.'fr'1" 
*"" nn l"t'ronsu frorn l$80'

(::tso. tt lrl;tck citlrrlitl:t[c t'tttt llll(tllpr''cc(l tt't' :r rrt:1i:ti'ttu rrr "r'

wniclr is sigrrilictrnt i;;;t;t;" iitd iu:rkc-rr1' of t'hr: c:rnrlitlllc

sll[o ls inrlicalivo ';"iitt; 
votirrg stretrgth o[ l tlistrict's

crnsl.itrrrttcics. t"tg* t2 trol'r: 4li' tllt"rrl' ll' is illso sig-

rullicanl., :rs tlto "tu*'J"n"i"iu" 
to'otttu' ilrut dtere lrc tro

il,*",, i'r -, .t:,,.. l:, ll;i;j;,; :i*" i:f ;* " lI $llll;llil,l;
or canrlirlacY; lllt I

rertttirctncnt tt*t t't*lt"';;;i;;;"i t:rnrlirlnle sl:rtirrg h:rs tt,[

rrccrr rrrr'irr^terl hy -,tilt;;i;;r; n,ut r.hc'c is tto tnnj,rity

"uro,'oqui''ctttcrtl' 
i;";;';;:;i'foy::t;,,;:Iffi :; ;ll#:

llteso fuclot's wot'c ttsttally l)l'qsenl lll I

cuscs in wlrk:h "ttt'i-lr'""'i'u'' 
tlitt'i"t" wero itrv:rlirl:tletl or'

wcro oxltressul trt''iit'E l;t'ttgt'e$s' c.ttsirltl'nl'irltt of [lrc

l0[12 nttrcnrlrtrents l*"1 i"tiifr"Jq -t"t 
lhcir en:rcttttetrl'

scc, o./., tvttite,'l; i''3; i'zi'rl1litvdtnce' v' llott'str'

6t6 F.2(l n,p, n"]i'i'i?ti'-cit' -lt)?6)' 
vnctttcrl ntttl re-

rnuttlerl ort 'llter *tlt'r,ttr't'f 
i u's' 04? ( lt)?(i) ; zintmor'

{BE F.2rl ur rlor'lisoii;-l'r' lVltilco-nilt v' Cltcuis' srr"''n''

lllack Vot.crs, 666iui ^;'a;'iiin'ttt" 
l-r08 lr'2rl n[ ll12;

Scnnto llelxrr[ Io''Jz''-lf*''o-.Ilcporl 3I tr't06''l'lte

nltscrtco o[ sttclt r't'tli-'J u' r'o'ti"ipirlion in lhe clectot':rl

procffls, cortplcrl "iiit 
tho finrlings rttntla by l'lre crtttt'[

rcgnrrling uto 
"t"Jo*' 

il"ti r'rt'"rt -cirnrlirlatur 
ltnvc hirtl :tttrl

ir,l' * i, i t" voti n g 
;i:{Ul,,t i l,,tJ' H,:,,i':.' f ; ;l;Hr B:" - fi

;,",,":,:' .i: Iil'ff , Jil:J'li; l':', Li T, ;iil:.*,,'i*' ."v't"':n r': :'ls

i*n n-Utnuront blnr:k r:trnrlirltta recclvcrl 22'/" rnd 28%' of tho

wtlttc vote lrr utt 

"":it'*'"tt"tt 

gonotnt'olocllort' rcsp..t:tivcly' ltt

flonntt: t)lslrlct 
"' 

li:i'i]ffi'"'*"ti*t'"r tha ['rrrrjlx:rsort rlelcgntlotr

fronr l$?6-l!''n '*t"i'-.ri-'ani' "l- 
thc wtrito v'ilcs in tlru l0?8

,rlrrtnry nrrrl 417' t';"iu;'*tt;t:';;rl t:,:c-l'l.tr' A st:r:,tttl lrl.ck c^rtrllrltrto

(ttrlh) rnn ltr l!182 Li..f'*"tl"o'"tl tl.'/o ol thc whilr: v.tc itr llt*

prhnnry trrrl 3!l.l' tlr itt" -l"till r:k:ctlon'. J S App' 42:t lrl.rt:ttvct'

rvhlle hlnr:ks n'"t tl"ti'"oi*''t't trt" lxrirttlrtlkrtt.f llrr: r:ily.I olrttr-

irttc, n t'tn"l tro"t'lll'1lit" "iltt'iut^io- 
*n"'olot:t'ul tttttvrtr rvlth it8% of

tlre wtrltc '"'" 
rrn"i'i"''"'"itir" tleprrblk:nrr' J'S ApD' !ll-rn' 'l'lrls

figrrlc ls "irrntnttutti'i'i""tt'.,'ri 
J"'*e'tlrnr ln n ltcnrl-t.-htrtrtl c.trlcst

'tnnrothnnone-tlrlr'r';'ii;;wlrltcvotr:rswcrorvlllltrfttovolcfot'n
- lrlnct< cnnrtitlatc t"'"'i'*tt'ii"'--ill""ts nlso .e*l 28'G"/" ol 1!ro rllstrlct

antl 16.?% "' 
ut' It'li"']oo'"t"'tt"t""cl setrts frorn lll??-llltll' J's'

APP. 3{a'



B4

not (topriverl blacks of ths opportnnity [o pnrtlcipate

Urs clecl.oral proccss ln l'trese l'wo rlis[ricts''r

CON(:I,USION

't'lro jtrtlgrncn[ of tho dlsl'ricl' cottrl' shoukl

Itespmtf ullY strbrnitterl'

I

bo rcversetl.

Cltlttl,r's Fttttttr
A ctitt 11 S olioilot' (i ctr a' ol

WM. Dnnlrrtnn ILBYNotns
A ssislanl A llorttaY G enrl.al

Crtrnt,ns J. Coornn
D eltttly A ssiaAoflt A llor ney G eneral.

I'AUL J. L,tnrtN, JR.

Aasialotrt to lhe Solicitor Gmctal

JrrLY 1086

I S*,,f.f the Court nonetltetcss cottclttrle thnl' thoro le on lnsrtfil-

clcrrt bnsls ln the recortl"itt n"tfi'c no vlolnLlon of anrenrlerl Soctlott

2 wtth rcspett to tttuseiwtttiititl"["' then' glven tho dlstrlct cottrl'o

rellnrreo .J,,rr nn f u"n.r*ii"iot "ton,inr,t, 
[l* ,rpptnprlntc .l.synltlon

wotrhl lre Lo relnnntl U'u 
"^'"u 

l'o lhe dlstrlct corrrt for furl'lrcr pro-

eocrtirtgs trntler ttre 
"t'"'-J-i"gnt 

ol'ntrrlnrrl' See I'rrllntoa-Slondorrt Y'

.i,r,irt, ,ffio tr.fl. 2?S, znl-zg2 (1982)'

ft t' l' eotltrttrt tllrtli' ottr'tr ltoD 
'rlltl 

lozlt
Copyright notice

This collection and the tools to navigate it (the “Collection”) are available to the public for general educational and research purposes, as well as to preserve and contextualize the history of the content and materials it contains (the “Materials”). Like other archival collections, such as those found in libraries, LDF owns the physical source Materials that have been digitized for the Collection; however, LDF does not own the underlying copyright or other rights in all items and there are limits on how you can use the Materials. By accessing and using the Material, you acknowledge your agreement to the Terms. If you do not agree, please do not use the Materials.
Additional info

To the extent that LDF includes information about the Materials’ origins or ownership or provides summaries or transcripts of original source Materials, LDF does not warrant or guarantee the accuracy of such information, transcripts or summaries, and shall not be responsible for any inaccuracies.
Brief for the United States as Amicus Curiae Supporting Appellants

Matter

Case

U.S. state

Collection

Taxonomy

Identifier

Cite this item

Copyright notice

Additional info

You may also be interested in
