Barriers to Effective Participation in Electoral Processes
Annotated Secondary Research
January 1, 1982

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Case Files, Thornburg v. Gingles Working Files - Guinier. Barriers to Effective Participation in Electoral Processes, 1982. 9681e58a-dc92-ee11-be37-6045bdeb8873. LDF Archives, Thurgood Marshall Institute. https://ldfrecollection.org/archives/archives-search/archives-item/d3aa4e4b-d682-4e85-9e22-5d066c714ad7/barriers-to-effective-participation-in-electoral-processes. Accessed July 09, 2025.
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Ropunl u'-,t -b a'((tQ"$ V"l ' V\, € c\uclh^:". *#,0^, l'/:--"ll--lS T'O f-Ffa,--1i;E;ArTlC:?!.1:-^'I I\ lll-'aai'-);:Li;'ka)(-aiSES Fia.is ani t,t.i,e: rr:ni,rlt:e! l-,s-.i,r,:a1i.;" 9a--ec a n-)r,r'er- of l,ar:1ar-E in'.:)err a'-tanDt.s !c LSe their votinE po..entral to attarn a be'.ter Irfe. T:ese t,arr';'ers i'nlcLieC the follcu'ing electcral pr:.:eEses: B. D. r F reqistration vot ing canC , dac-r' ph;'sica1 and eecn:ir.ra in.-1r.i,iei-ior, f a ir repreeentat ra:; effect ire rep:eeentat roti S.rme of these bar-rieis n.al a::11, :: -. : ': afl'rr:;1 :'-)', wi: re otirera ma! ncti arri tirere r,a1 :e ^-a:l;e:s wi,ici: cc app1l t j/orrr aonrnJnrt! whicr,:::r:'- a;:€a: or. tire iiBt. AnC scr'e i:orrlers maj ha")€, ap-,:- tec ref lre :h€ \r:'-in; FightE .&ct c: 1''65, tut dc n,:'- :.:!. a:i-. --:::'ta-:' :.ie;' rr:5: .cn,e tc :. anl'liei tc _'(,Jr a:.i:,j:.r:.r'!. ti ::ia e\=:'-'!.",3: :ie "r:'tl:-rc !-9-:E Act is not e>:te:::.-: :: -:':1. 7:,< f : -ial{:I-1. a.:a!19 +-n'is€ ba,rrrers '.a e:f ?a'-:ii :--i:---::- :,":: --r-',ai-La:.. F '_-.l:ij::_a..,r:r. rs e.l ti s-r,e cf ef :e,rt . c i.]a t e e':al: -- : thes" Thc ::s:::r ::::,s:s aiJa ae\'llas r:Et I r.-:---:es ::--:. :e::s'-:.- -:: I a a -- '. +: ::. '-:-i e I ;r ::,i: : --' '.: :s a'- -.:::: ;-.--t '-n!.::: -s -- :.: l-:;: .-: ie,-t -:r,c; ef f c;:s r: s :l: tre] -:es tc a . s:ra:r::.. s+ :.11 : t952 E pARrrcrpAiror rN ELBcToRAL pRocEssEs Lher minoritiee hietorically faced a : their attempta to uae the!r voting r better life. Theee barriere involved ral proceaaeer economic intlnldation tta t ion ,rea6ntation '! m.y apply to your comlnunity, while :here nay be barriers which do apply t, do not appear on the lirt. And Bome rlied before the Voting Rights Act of apply--although the], might come to be nity in the event that the Voting RightE n 1982. The follaring detaila these electoral participation. a long history of tests and devices r lnd other minorrties from regietration. of 1965 resulted in the elimination of nd devices, at least while the Act is in hae a chilLing effect upon efforte to oel, te8ts and det'iceE to di8franchise -1- 1953 Dtecrr end otber minoritiee. The follorring barriere to ,aglrtrrtion are often found even white the Act i! in effect l. lack of interest and of affirmative attempta to regieter votera by registration officiala Z. inconvenient and/or irregular timee for registration l. inconvenient locations for regiatration a. purging and re-regietration practicea which disadvantage mlnoritiea 3. in.deguate number of minority 6. inadeguate information about and procedurae 7. phyaical, economic, and other regr!tration pereonnel regiltration policiea formB of lntinidation Egi.s XcAiatration does not necesaarily mean voting. Efforts DvG been made to prevent or diacourage regiatrants from l,oti.ng and to make their voteB resa effective. These ef forts loclude the follo!^ring whieh are found whil.e the Act ie atiII la offect: l. lack of intere8t and of affirnative attenptE toencourage minority voting by election officiale 2. failure to }ocate regiatranta' nameE on precinct liats and,/or guestionable ehallengea of iight to vote 3. inconvenient locationg of pol1s, including locations. where minoritiee feel unwelcoure or uncqnfortable 4. inadeguate number of minorlty electj.on peraonnel 5. inadeguate number of rninority poJ.1 watchere 5. ir.adeguate number of aesistantE for illiterateE 7. laek of bitingual materialg for non_Bngliah_apeakera 8. miguee of abcentee ballots ) f. inadeguaey of voting facilities -2- ;', !L,.i..;.i1r': i 1 954 1C. :r',ac'eg;ate inf:,-,atior al,:,ut +-:€ i':r.ati:n of tl,e pclil.s anC t:ie a:.a s.r'. ai br ta:r. ;,olI lL. -uI-.) e::a).. e'..'rr),-\fi,c, ani ithe: j--,--:rie of lrt j.llSat'lor ,. l-Igr.*-:: Pctentlal tr,j.rrorit]'can.liJa'.er l:e rnore 1i.ke1y tc be iriexperienced in polltics and in the iaws, policles, ani l,ractlceB involved in beconing a caniidate anC in the i.:caeEE (rf canrpaigning. Thel' are ai6c Lese l:.ke:1' '-g, hare +-,ie 9.,ci vill and ccrperation of the off rcials :,rvcirei. ?ie icllcur:,: t,6rr:leis to candi.Jacy have l,een fc,:nc: ]. Iack of inte:est aaa affi:-r'at:\'e atr--^n:'+-a ta e!:a:-:a3€ canilCacy of ninorities by clcc:ion (anC ctf,e:) officials i:-,a i equate c3c-",er a t r cr. ur th ca:')a r :3'. "s'=r' e L ec-- -,^:. rff :.::-als ai,:-:t reoi::+:+r.:s f- : .iel :-f:aatrc:. e>:Fens:i,e f:iirrg fees (;rinc:.::es aie c,:teri lrcc. restrictions ori +-fri!'d part\, o:';r):le:endent :ani::=:ee tl're'da)' ;anCiiates are llstei ci'-he >aliot !naioouate k:,:,ule:l:e :: -F->tJs-:: :anc:da'-:s ::.ajegi-;at: ).r,:;lejge :f ;eg:s:e-e3 \,1:e:s :'eculat:cr.s a:ri ::€ ::.+J--:a:--: g'f :::e:e:i: :: :ec-la'-tar.s u:,-:l' ::sz:', ei,'-z:+s E::,at -:_ ;a:-,::i::+s. :rc1-::n: ti+ i::ass +,:,::e:s :: :,e:::i': La_. 3: the pclls ani '.r-,e reii,lirel ol ::.:. !i.:aar:a. :a:,:'-'-a'-.s ::npa:;n )a,sters t,r' officlals 'r. Irrinlrit) aaardrj3',eS' pC11 wat::..:s nf: aF>:'or-a irsl i.-r'-lc .rr.e'c aric,rs i:: tire ai"c,rro",fD"r-a::::.s. :: at the colintlns of the baiicts .F^ -l ' i-.aa,. S:r-r_:,€:i- :a)-t_:tt:--eS Ui::: Er€i'er-,is Liaci anc ai:-:e: !r-rr.::-- ca:rilie',es irc:: beinq inr':r-ed +,a :ar--e-:.:. !e jcl= :,:s::,es9 nr:l:---:a.- an: :'-ier orca:: -z?t -La! '-f,'.ne H--'-i :T..Jl:i::t.--a,:.1 tc wi-,or nfi-rarraritj 3ani.ja'-es a,a!e aa:esF a --': - >'1a..oj -- =ri ^--*a-- trl '.t:,i 195{ li".i:':fl:'::r*";; jlln,i;ii'"n or the ,, ccoDotnic, and other foraa of lnthldtat{on I nlnority ecndidatat lre moro llhcly to bepolltlc! and in the lawg, policler, and rd in beconing a candidate and tn the procea. Thcy rrc alro leae likely to hrve the good ion of the officialr involved. The follor.ring dacy have been found: ":;Til":li, : j'ifr i::ir3,.. tlj ""ti"il.ou."," r -cooparation uithauour ."fu i;;:;I".;:: r;i".ii r?I" ii:;. r". frling feee (minoritiea are often poor) na on third party or independent c.ndidates ndidates are liated on the ballot knowlcdge of oppoaing candidates knorledge of registered votere l. iili"in!,l:;3H::::: enrorcement or f j:.;+*ii;$. r ; xiiir "::"r ji j" . :" f;++,f5*** i :: :. : rifti: j!:. in many southern c,rck and "tt,"i'iii";?Funities which ro to campaign u.tolly-candidatea frorn ;it#ii;Tj,jl,i*" _x !sgri:::;:', !"i::' g. ::3?; :'IJ:iii;ii: " J3"3$:, ";:;: ".!3, i. I 3Ii 3,1"1*,"uby non-minoritie.) tr. "r's:?l-:::::" t" participation in politicalorganrzat ron8 '. -rr. g:fll::l.i:a.of runnins aa independentg or ae menbersof third p":tl::; ineluding g"ttrrrg on thc ballot andbrvlng their polt watcheri-riJognrzed ta. preventing succegcful. minority candidatec from takinooffice or receiving tne priniiy nomination 15. ff*.;Tr::!.p*., or effectivenesa-of the off ice crection ".",ijtriiliio::..;: ;:::a;S.f.;;";':;:; ." 16' :#Ii#:i:t an orrice or chansins. it.frqn erectrve to a' m inor i ty "li!,ij. loi;.ff ".3;::t:":lii ;. i;';;' t7. physical, economic, and other forme of inti.nridation trtl..ldrtion Southern hiatory deacribss many mean6 of aubordinating Lbckr lnd other rnlnoritiea ao they would rerrain in "their ;l.cc.. These meana include murdera, beatinge, and threata cf physical attack together with econonric meana involving ,dt, credit, housing. and bueinesB aa well as othe! eocial alrd cultural means. The foltowing baruierg have been found: l. lack of intereat and affirmatir,minorities il .!". ;";;i"-":;^l;"i:.ff;;|".1,,8,o."".privileges to particip"t"'ii-.i".tora1 politic6 2. inadequate cooperation betlreen officials and thoaeminorit ies who- are tr.,r""i"iII.," :; l:;:.;i":l i: ; ;h;; i :; i :"::";:,: : :":l "S.i:, "I8.." 3' Iii:i:3i'"*:lil::irjl'"".", and other forms of 4. Ioss of j6!g, :j:*ii: r.*, "ii3i'i;"1::"*t3,,:::*:,.:;:i;":1t,,ti"", 1955 -3- ,:i': ,:i:i:, iiili "iii','i r 1t156 5. Other ec,::a1 ani eulturaL r,eans -s.ed to s:)':,1di;sg" ml:lcr:t:es .J: cC :+d.::e .-he eff+.:t'-\'e:-,ess of tl-,e:.r iar::c:!.at:.tn :.r. eiecto:a1 pc1:tics f .a:^ : - ::-i.i.-q. le I i q t ir:: Cne 3spect of rep:eserrtation le iairing n:ncrity vs+-ga cD-n+- t:re aaEre aa oti''er voteB. The vote can be u-atered 3cr:n rr. n;iierc'.:6 u'ai'8, inej-oCing +-he u'ay t,o.n3ar:.es of ellection ar.etricts a:e C;exr, arrC r,he'ray votinc rules are errfc,rced. The f:iifw:nc are s-;ne cf the barrie:.B to fair rep:esen..aticn. L. "gerrlr,anCei':Dc:" d:awing eLection dtst-rtct baur,C6::er Eo that tne ..:nl,er: cf electi.on d:6trtct s r-hich coulc prct,ahlr' be uor. 5)' n,ir,crittes iB rei"ced 2. requ:.remet:'-e that a niajcritl rather r-han a pluralitl :.a regut:ed to wir. an el.ection =. f:11-sIa'-e :e;::::i;ent rpre\:en.-E !T-to::::es frcr col'r3€:it:at:ng their vc+-es behinC a Linlted n.Inl:er of cand:.ia+,es whc n ight win ae a :'eeu1t ) 4. separa',:!cn of cie electoral conteBt lnto a nur,ber of rnCri,icual con'.ests to the d:sadvantaqe of mir)Ori -!:e6, :nCi :ii-ng: a. el-ec+-.ons fc:'si.ng1e poEts or mult:-n,enber distrlc:r b. a'.-:,aif,€ ..,otirn? for district p,:sitione c. staJci:etr ier;.s ci off::e a. re3-:ln: :fr: n;ni,ei of sea'-s fc: a given of f :ce (t':.t.: l-r,::.ases ine nu.'},ei of vc.-e6 reguireC tc ge+- electei to that offi:e) 5, exte:):-r,r'.1.e terrs cf ncn-In!norit), incjr.a,en..s (to :e,ar rtr:,::t: e-e!-tion tc the cff ::e\ L. -se:5 ia,:li,a:---san eieeticns when i.'- wculi::sa:'iar,:a:e r' 1n;; t:-,, :anC :- :a'- es r!tea - -'-aLl,€ ted :stricting and :eapport lcrirr,ent fcl-:v--::; :e:.sJs :eia,rts S.3h1:Erca)., ec::.r:rn-c, ani orther forras of i.nt'.rnidation -5- ;; : j].ti-e-. 1956 and cultural meana uled to aubordinatc,r to roduce the effectivenets of their,n in electoral politice 195L, t ,ft'hi, !rpect of rePreaentation concernE the better i *f.t rhoul.d be the result of participation in electoral lor tor Thi! rould include employment, housing, health burinese, recreation, and other aBpect! of a better tiDoritie!. The willingneea of eleeted officiale to f rcpreaentation 1r having ninority vot31 be! votea. The votG crn bc watered do\rrt cluding the way boundariea of election and the rray voting rulee are enforcad. lne of the barrierr to fair repr€Bentlties3 ing:" drawing election diatrict boundar nunbcr of election district3 uhioh could *on by ninoritie! ir reduced _ that ! tllr jority rathe! than ! plurality to win an election rgulrcment (prevent! ninoritiec fron 3 their votes behind a limited numberr uho roight win ae a reeult ) f ona el€ctoral contest into a nr.urberI contertB to the diaadvantage of !nc). ud ing : ! for lingle polts or multi-member distri voting for dittrlet po!ition! I t€rma of office thc number of 3eat6 for a given offiee rcreales the number of vctes reouired reetcd to that office) r terma of non<rinority incumbentE (to :], elcction to the office) 'ti!!n electione when it would di8aCvantlg. I idater 'cdlBtricting and rerpportiorment trua !eporta romic, and other formg of Intimidation -5- , a a Ltt . bGttcr life ae yeIl as the ability and the po!,rer of officials to gain actual result! ia involved. The to cffective repreaentation include: l. itek of interest and affirmative attempte of officiale .ftcr they are elected to work for a better 1ife for :ti *r.' tf 'trytr E {t* *.t' a !, a. t. linor i t ies rcrponrive off icals.bei-ng outvoted by non-reaponaive officials on governing boarda rca-oonaive officals'inability to get the neceaaary cooperrtion froh the other elected and appolnted officiala to make the changes reguired rcluctance of reaponaive officials to take a rtandyhich would mean controveray, conflict, and atrainedrclationghipe with lmportant individuals and groupi phyrJ.cal, economic, and other forms of intinidation directed against reeponsive minority elected officiale }:. Epwrnos.- Mr.l,unFen, if there are no further questions_ ; rhinl you. Ms. Thompson, very much for ve.y-he-rpi"i t "ti-Er. lQr aext witness is the Honorable Mary Estill Buchanan, who is -_ErcretarS' of Srat€ of the glear Stat€ of Col;;do,!c relco'llg svou. I\Is Buclianan, and *it1r"ri-"uiection your fulr&ent *'ill be made a part of the record, and y6u -"v"pr*""a 'ESTIMOIiY OP MART ESTILL BTICHA}iAN, SECRETARY OF STATE. STATE OF COLORADO h BucnlN.nN. Thank you, Mr. Chairman.I rar here to testifl,.agiinsi the bii*guI-provisions and amend-Err to the u.s. voting 4igttr $a en?_ to ii.gelheir iei&a, o,r lct I mechanism pio*idh *li;;"b_; t', ilil;i;; l".iiJu, ""n5i :"l'tr, H:H' ti: i*,[ :}i,:t"f *F.[[li# "Hf [ :ib aor J'eJ ben broughr i"*r'";d -il;;-" piuri. uoa"r:"tiii r "*r.'r of, bur most pa?.icuiarrl t d; il -ori trre- ur"-G tnii tr,u"" lqmonE do nor reaih.rhe tanguas. ;iro;i;).;irir. ;; intJra"a to!* anc frusri'aie rather th"i il;ri;i [ir" "n"ru * .rioii* r,rrrFticipatlcn b1. Iangruage minoriri-;;;r;ff"ff ,.lTjti?l,f ?##:"T:'""1'l:lr:.3*rl,*J*!iri"?I po,visions- *-hich ."gur."- *rrtti, --"t"riii;; ,J;r;ifr Un-