Annotated Brief for the United States as Amicus Curiae Supporting Appellants

Working File
July 1, 1985
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LDF Attorneys
Cooperating Attorney
- Leslie J. Winner
Organization
- NAACP Legal and Educational Defense Fund, Inc.
Matter
- Gingles
Case
- Thornburg v. Gingles
U.S. state
- North Carolina
Collection
- Case Files
Taxonomy
Identifier
- d55ec989-db92-ee11-be37-6045bdeb8873
Cite this item

Case Files, Thornburg v. Gingles Working Files - Guinier. Annotated Brief for the United States as Amicus Curiae Supporting Appellants, 1985. d55ec989-db92-ee11-be37-6045bdeb8873. LDF Archives, Thurgood Marshall Institute. https://ldfrecollection.org/archives/archives-search/archives-item/f2feb974-024b-419a-8663-aa833e5a230c/annotated-brief-for-the-united-states-as-amicus-curiae-supporting-appellants. Accessed May 22, 2025.

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nrnen(le(l Sec[ion 2 of l,he Vol'ing ltig-hLs Act' of l9{i5'

42 LI.S.C. I9?3, as ilrvalirlr[ing eet'Lrilr lnulti-lilelnber

i.ei"i^ti* tlisl,ricts in whictr minor.ity can<litl:rles hnd r
prirron opportunit.y l,o p:rtl,icip:rte in the electoral process'
'"n-tfi" g;.r,rrr,l t.lra[ there w:rs ,o guarunl,€e [6at rninori-

l,ies woirltl elljoy [ho conl,ilrue(l eleelot:rl stlccess gtlarnn-

l,eerl by "safe" rlistrict,s.
2,. Wh.th"t raeial blqc vol'ing exisl's as n ml[[er of

law wltettever less thnn 60!'o of the white votet's eas[

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lv
Cn^ces-Conilnrrerl :

Dotta v. Il[oote,639 lr.Z(l 1162 '-- '--- -'- '---

Pngo

.14, 18,28,3,

Cnses-Cott[inrretl :

ll'a.lln,ae v. florrse, 616

l16l .

Zinttn.el' v. l[ e.Rail,h en., 48lt

n,ont. lln,sl; Cot'toll, I'nrish'
shnll, 424 t,.S. 6:lG

Ciotrsl,il,rrl.iott. sllrl.trl,e nltrl t'ttle :

s2,42U.S.C. 197:l

F 6,42 U.S.C. 1973e

Ferl. R. Olv. P. 62(n) ..

Mlseelllttrr-'orts :

Iloytl & Mnrknrnn, 7'ie
Votino Righl* Act:
Wnsh' & Lee L. ltev'

127 (jont{. Itec' :

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f.2(l 6l[), vncltl,etl ntttl re-
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636 r.zd
3

Ir.2rl 1297, alT'rl 'srrl'

Selr,ool, Rd. v. fiIn'r'
...14,24, ZG, ?,:l

2GDurtslotr, v. Scol,f, 336 F. Supp. 206 ztt nrntttletl, 426 U.S. 947 ..

ll'o,Iters v. Nt,tionn,l Ass'tt' ol Ra d.i ati,otr, S u'r u i tt ot's,

Gtand, Rapid; Seh,ool Dist. v' Bn[[, No' 83-090

(July 1, 1086) .---" -

Groaa-Ci.LU Col.lele Y. Rall, No' 82-?92 (Feh' 28'

r984) ....--.
Ilnrpe,r & R.ot.o, I\tlili,sh,ers, ln'e' Y' Nal'iott' Etr'tcr-

prLtes, No. 83-1G32 (Mnv 20, 1086) --- '----

t0

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l8

No.84-6?1. (.Irrne 28, 1986)

lVllil,aom,b v. Cho,ttis,403 U'S' 124 ' '
llthit,e Y. Re,gesl.er,4l2 U'S' 7lt6 ' """

llrlalte v. lllndison, I'ot'ish' l'oliaa 'ltt'r11,

IIin.itt'i* v. ,loseph,,669 f.Zd 1266 " "-"'-'----'-14' l!t' z$'28

,lonrls v. City ol Lu'bboelc,727 F'Zil 864, opinlorr otl

reltearing, ?30 lr.zd 2$3 -- -- -- '-- ---'-19' 20':10

I{al;elunn v. R11rn,a, ?40 f.zd 1398, cerl;' denled, No'

84-G27 (,Itrne 3, 1086) ------- - -""""""'- 17'21

Lee Cou,n,ty Bro,neh' of NAACP v' City ol Olteli'leo'

?48 tr.zd 1478 ........ .. ------ 20'q9

lleCartg v. Ilettd.erson,,T4OF-zd ll34 -",'--"--'-'------' 2G

McCtesieU Y. Zant,680 tr. Supp' S38, nft'tl, 763 F'Zd

877 ......-..... B0

McGi.Il v. Ga.&tdcn Countg Comtt"tt', 6il6 F'Zlt 277 ' 28

ll cll ittan v. IN scambio C ou'nty, ? 48 F'zd lO37 " " " " " 24' 2!l

Illett'opolitan 4Ndi.son Co. v. PANf',4$0 U'S' ?66- -- l8
iirth' Ilarten Rd.. ol Edttc. t' Bell, 46G U'S' 612' " 16

Pnl,ton v. You.nt, No. 83-gE (Juno 20, lg84)- "'- " 18

I'lrllntrn-Slantlnril v. Surfilt, 466 U'S' 278 "--"" " " 34

Rogets tt. Lotlge,468 U.$. 6lS- -- -' .--"""'--- "-" --t 4'27'31

Sei.tnon,v.llplto'm, No. P-81-{9-CA (E'D' Tex' Jan'

30, 1984), alT'tl srrD ,t,om. Stralc'- v' Seolt'or'' No'

fl-fAZg (Oct. 1, f984) --------- """""-18' 20' 30

Stt'icleland, v. lVantdn'gtot, No' 82-llt64 (May 14'

,g84)...-..... 18

Tolllor v. lIc(ki.t'hert., 499 F.2(l 803 '-""'-"'--'--""--'-' ill
Tni'r'a.ros t. Clo'nw,nta, 681 F. Strpp' I il2g 20-30

'l'rtt'nar v. Mc(tei,th.e'rr, 490 F'zd l9l 3t
Iltlited,lewislr Org.r. v. Cn'rey,430 U'S' 144 ' " ' ' 28'31

IJn,i.l.ed. Sf.a.tes v- Boartl of Sttparttisors, 6?l F'2rl

95t . ... . .. 2l

llniiad, Sfote.c v. Llaren'1|o CotLl'l'11 Con'nr"n' 731

F.Zrl 1640 29

Ilpfuun,v. Seo.rttort, 466 U.S' :l? . 2l
V'elo,squ.ez v. Cil,tt ol Abi,lano',726 F '2:c. l0l ? -' " ' l0

Wo,inutt'i0l* Y. Wi.tt;, No. 83-142? (Jnn' 21, 1986)" 18

[J.S. (lnnsl;. Arnelrrl. I (Iilsl'nblishmr:ttl; Cllttrse). .'-"
Votirrg ltlrlrl.s Acl, of 1066, 42 U'S'C' l97l at' seq'z

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1982 Am.andnt.ertl.s l,o t'h'a

A Lellisloti.tto, IIi.stot'l , 40

1347 (1983) . $,10

5 2(b), 42 U.S.C. 'l97il (b)

$ 6,42 tl.S.C. ( l97G ed.) 1973c ' '

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p. S I 63?2 ( rlnilv rxl. I )rx:' '16, I 98 I )

p. Sl6G$4 (rlnilv erl. Dee' 16, t98l) ' '

128 Cons. Ree.:
pp. ll384o-l1384 I (rlnil'v erl' 'l tttre 23' 1982)

p. II:1841 (<lnilj' q(l"Itrtre 23' 1982)

p. 113842 (tlnily erl. 'lrrne 2il, 1982) ' ' '

tr. 1I3844 (rlnil.v erl' ,lurre 23, 1082)

p. I13846 (tlaily orl. .Irrne 23' 1082)

p. 56500 (rllrilv erl. Jurre 9, l$82)
p. 566li? (rlnil.v erl' Jtttte 9, 1982)

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p. SCO:lo tinily etl. .lune l?, lg82) " l7 
Iti r ltnt,l'lt Glxr;l,r:-s, lrr AL'

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ir. .iegaa i,r"ifv erl' June 1?, 1982) lG' zG i "'lroL't'tttnAS't'ti;RNDlsT'nIC't'()fr'Non1'It()Alt(')LtNA
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I'lll:l il{I:l {::::l:'l::31 l[ I ns Anu(:r,s (;urrr^r,) st,r't'on'r'rN(r An'rir,r,n N'r's

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p. STIBS ianitv *0. June lB, 1982) 16 tN't't tu4s't' olill'Iln UNt'l'Iil) s'l'A'l'lEs

ip. iiiio i,rirri "a..1""e 
18, lr82) .... " --. " t on octobor 1, 1984, Lhe Court entetcrl rn orrlcr lrrvil'-

Dxre.*ion ol IhE, Votiq nilhtl..-Act: - Ilaarittrs i frr* ifr.-,inti"tt"" C"i"."t to cxptesi l'he- vi$vE o[ l'ha

,ralora th" Snbcol/l.m. on Cioil and Cott'Ut - I iilft"ii SL"f." hr l,his cme. We tenporrrled in a lrriaf
uo,n nh.n, d r\". !I!:, !:,.":;li:h" t'dL 

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two quesl,k,ne, rrrtl,. rrlo.

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E.lili:iililiXllX.:illiflIiiiiiii " ' I I li ir'o v-"ii"s ltg':l" ^"l ll l-'11--1?-Yri,9lTi:'.l"illiJ' rUUz' r'm t^trr'( ' ..-- 

. ....''. o I ii,,iioir St *u" 1:us Lhc ptirnary rcironFilrilily for crtorc-
S.31t2, $?l,h ConE.,1stsod5. (1081) . l t--- - -..r.-r--ri4r

;;.i;:,;;';;;;;';;,";i;;,qr;;', i. ij, ot .,t. na- ' inforc*t in crruring tftat l.le Acr ls consl.ttted.ir a.-mrtn'
,1,t.nl1 . jL!, rt v.t . \\'v '

fore th,e Sultaomnr,. on ti..o Consl.itr.tlirLlt nl ll)l ner [h:rt; fldvnnces, t'nl,het' l,hln inrperles' it's objcct'ives'
'Serr.oln 

Connn,. otr. l,lte ,llr.rrl'ieio't'11,9?th Cong', 2rl
s'l'A't'lr[l ItN'l'til,,:1"'l. 

........ ,dr*i,,r ' ,. tn Julv re8t, a-c.'r.re6ult:f th"; l'g:l :"1':ll ll:l::l
yo.irr nt,,hts Act: Repo,1 of ihe S'rt'(omm. or ttre ii lt*pt"*"rtntir"" rnrl Sorrttlc..lh.Saplomb'r' l98l' aI'

(iontrt.ihrt.ton o ha S€nol.eJrrIdnry r;omm., e7th naf*l ni"i this Fuil.' flllrEihg l,l'nl, the t'l l's I'xd he'n

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2

enactcd pursuanl, to provisions o[ -the 
Nort'h Carolinrt

constitution l,hat reqtilred, but hnrl nol, reeeived, pt'e-

elearanee pursttnnt to Seetiolr 6 gf tho Vot'ing ltiglrl's

n.i rf fOOf,42 U.S.C. (19?6 erl') 19?3e' zrnrl that t'he

.,* "i large multi-member tlistricl's sttbnrer[etl coneerl-

ir,,tions oF blnek vo[ers arttl tlilrrtetl tnitrority voting

;t;;;t;ai, in violntion of the Constitut'ion nnd Sectlon 2

,iif,I Voting Rights Act of 1966,42 II'S'C' (10?G ed')

l9?3(J.S.App.3a-4a).rAftertheplansweretrlt'imalely
arlopterl hV tfre st:rl;e leglslature,? appellees anrenrlerl their

pi"ti,iirg-"r,o elrnllenge-five Ilorr'se Distriets (Nos' 8' 2l'
13, 26,'or,l s9) anri trvo Senate l)istricts (Nos' 2 nnrl

22) nntl to confortn ttleir plenrlings to the newly-amentlerl

Scction 2 of the Voting Rights Act'"I'lte "gt'ilvrlmen"

oi opporrnos, elaim with- reference to l.hese rnultimemtrer'

tlistrlief's whs l,lrat the State's plan "makes ilse of mrrl[i-

rnember dist;ricls wil.h srrbstn'tinl wlrite votiDg mnjor-

ities in solne arcits of the stal'e in which [hel'e are sttfll-

cieul, concenIt':rtions of lllactt voters l'o fot'm mzrjorit'y

irr*.r, ,ingle_memtrer rlistriets ' ' *,,. (J.s. App. 4n).

'ftro ptn,t 
"wa" in this respect elaimerl to violate llnenrletl

Scction 2 of l.lre Voting Rights AcL

2. The ease was tried befote a three-jurlge cour[. on

l,he tlnsis of extensive stiptrlations of fnret' doeuntentat'y

uri,ton.", antl oral tesl.imony ('I'S' App' 8n)- 'fhe cottt't

enteretl an order nnd opinion conlaining extensive lln(l-

i.d ,; the variotts factors irlent'ifictl ilr lhe legislttive

i;iilr; of amentlett Section 2 nnrl cnse l:rw :ts relevant

in n ,ntu rlilution elaim' J'S' App' 2ln-6lrr' The cottt'l'

trof,f tft"t "it ltas now beeotne possible fot' blnck eil'izens

to be eleetetl l,o all levels of s[trte govet'ttment in North

Carolirrt" (ftl. nt 3?a). IIowever, tire cour[ furt'hcr helrl

-*'"'"cotlstll.utirlnnlprovlslontowlrlchtlresrtltrcfcrrerlwnRn p,nri"t,,u nrtopterl ln lt)68 prohlbltlng the dlvlslon of cotttttles for

thl prrrpose of t:rtrntlng electornl rllstrlcts'

,.Ilre proccrrrllngs nre tleecrllrc(l in ottr enrller lrrlef (nt l-2)'

r Only lrvo of tlreso 'rllsLrlctg-ttorrse l)lstrict 8 nnrl Sennte l)ls-

l.rlet 2i_werc subject t(| nnrl lrnrl rccelvcrl prectenrl|rreo rrnrler sec-

tlorr 6 of the Votlng ltishts Act'

3

thut,, ttntler [lre lotnlil,y of the. l'elevatrl' cit'ctttnsl'ltttces'

ii,""'r.o,fi.t,.icl.ing 1,lan'in all scve, c1:rllcrrgcrl rlisl,t'icts

rlilrrl.ed rninori[y vol.cs in violul'ion of tlnetttletl Sccl'ion 2

""J-"rl"i..tl 
ellcl.ions in the clrllcngetl 4isl,r'icl.s (i0rl4.).n

Tlre rlis[ric[ ctrttt'[ tlso t'evicwerl at lengt'h l'he 
-r'ircial

,l"i;;;t';,pii., ,,,,,1 vot,ing lristory of eitclr ch'tlcngetl mrrl-

l,imember tlisl,rict.
IIorr^sc District 21. Ilouse l)istricl, 21, itt wtlrc couttl'y,

elects six nremlrcrs to l.he Getterltl Asserrrbly on itn trl'-

i"ieo l,"tit (.,.S. Al,p. l9a)' -'Ilre noptrltttion lf- ll:
itf.r[,'i"u is 2l.8l,l,lacir, rntl blnclt voters eonstittrte 16'l%

ui "ri-r"gi.[crctl 
votels (iDirl.) .n 72% o[ tlre rvhil,e vot-

ing- ,igu jroprrlnl.ion is registererl l'o vote' trrtl 4{}'?'/" t'j

tnE m,"[ voting age poptrlrrt'ion is registeretl t9 v9t9

(irt. r[ 24n n.221. :fltu l'lnclt pt'prtlaLion is so sil'ttrttctl

tlrnbonesingle-ntonrlrcrlegislat,ivetlistrictcottltllletlt.itwtl
*itt',in l.tre prcserrI borrntl-aries, with tt blltclt popttlrrtiott

it Cl"l, (iri. ut, 20u). Untler the chtllerrgtrrl ;rlitn antl

its pretlecessol'," olle hlach legisltl'or w:rs elccletl in 1980

, rr,o,rr"trlcI court furrnrl (J.s. ApJr. 5ln-!-r2rt) thrrt llrrr l'otnlity of

l.tro following circutrtstttnces, ltt conlbinll'iort rvil'lr l'ltr: ttse of lnrl;c

ntttlLl-merrller.rlist,rlcLc,rlilrrterlrnlttrlrityvtrtesilttlltt:lttlIt|rel:lrlrl-
le,nee(l districts: 1l; i'tlre lirtgering elTrtl's oI scvttntJ' yr:rtrs rtf

olllclnl tllscrltnittnl.iolt nglirrst blnck cil'iz'rlrrs itt tttlttl'ct's tottt:llitlg

l'ogistrntion :rrlrl votitlg,'; (2) "srrbstlrrrIinl t<r sevtlre rtrcittl pttl:trizlt-

tlon in votlng," tnf "iit" ellccts of tltirty yenrs of pctsisl'ent r':rei:tl

n1rp,,ut" ln pollttcnl catrtpnigns," (4) "a r-elltively tlr'pt'csscd nrx:io-

""onn-t" 
sl.ntus re.srlltlng itr signinr:nttt rlcgree frotn a ccttlttt'y of

de jtt,c an4 rlc 1oclo scgr:eg:rt'lori" nntl (6). "1'1e r:ttrrl'ilttting clTtrct' ,f
nrnniurltyroter,:qrrilen"tut'"Thocourtnlsofotrrrrll'hlrtint:relrl'lng
iio *tu siugle-menrber rlisl.rlct chnllcngerl-so|rnte l)istrict 2"-the

itot. tnO .iitut"O blflr'k vot.ing sl.rength bv frnt:trtritrg l'ho blnr:k

conrmurrity lnto trvo rlistrict'q conLninlng Lrlrtck vol'lrrg minoriIies

(J.S. ApP.62n).
Srrbsequent pror:eetlittgs nre rlescribetl in rrttr olrrlier blief (nt 3

'''"",r,"corrrt rrirr not mnko. .nrring.for arry.I trrr: rrisr.r.icr.s ,,,rur,r]
lng v0tirrg nge ;xrptrlntiotl, rvhich is tlre prclerrt'tl lrreltsttl'e' See Cdl'y
'ritlurrr.7. 

tt"itritSlolc"r,446 U'S' l6G, 186 rr'22 (l!f80); ll'vchc v'

11atliso, I,arish. l,olit:e .lrr:11, 636 F.z(l ll6l, I lGt-l lG2 (litlr (ilr'

r08l).
0,flrer:hnllerrgerlnrrrltl.rnernllerrlistrit:Isctitltittttcrl;rre.exisl,lrrg

rllstrlcts nnrl l,lrelr npportlottmctrts (J'S' App' l9n)' 'l'ltue' lt ls pos-



4,

r,*:1":{igii:,lr:,,1i,itifr ;;ilffi "ti{i,'.;'-'ffiof l.lre whil'e Y:t"ll*-""rt'"t." in ift" g

md 46n/n of t'lte w

at 44r.)

ffim*m
"r?i.'i, i,r* n.zzl. The tfac\ .tto11,r,l i; rrrawn ,rlt]'lfn

[*, i**f "#,i*'-l fi ill,lu Hiliiti f":**t
}l:# *j: l:'l' ::l J"i, ;'r*,',T ; l?': I "':'' r,"o' t,io"t. t 

" 
g i'-

in everY elcction

laror was un"nuou"i-i'-'t'' **:l:ui$l; t'X tl""; "il
i;, ;_"+ u::,:il;li ;ilL i#"',jrm"*ili,u vo!e..in the

l$?8, he wrts et

trrimtt'v, nn.' "iJosz 
ho receiv{ ilf;{"ff'I'li'T ;:l'

[liitl'$ilf:-"""",:Jr'ft 'r,Tr;i1x',Ll'il,:'x;:;"i:
ZS%'of the wl

44sr). rr^-oo listricL 36, in Mecklcnburg

uHtttfi**lr;ffi
l.i,n is registered (id' nt'*.']l',i';t *' ingf-*rno*t"t
;il' ;i i'; qlTiil':,il0't'J1':l#'il';;;;;1fi bo 00 r %

legislal'ivo rli

il q-"g,1"111"^,i'[l;i,:Tl]ile 
rmpnct' rr nnY' bv rookrrrs nt

restrlts from m

1 r,r,,re,'{""t ffi ;;;,};;:t*'ffi.i:,',"J J]y il;: il;.i'' 
u 

"""'
two of wlrom

n,rrr ?r z/n r,r,rck ,#;,;'i il!l':',iill:',Lj*y;,:l: ',il.|',:
ono black rep'esenL'ur" 

",."-r",r 
," ll.: at 4B*). lle re_

first black. citiz'en.ur 
,ii*" "",,u,,rv 

(id,.

::llHi#'J':t'i'
:::;i 

: I +*[# il|]i,ffi i *#il il 
y;,t

:"tr#yi-i:#lii, r n,'*,':^" ::L,l'i."ir: lill'li

i','#{' ;:iuf-dllill il'f gfi * u;;'s *rl * i::
i"* i t i""r 

".'] 
tL'^l 

i ; t", err ro v'Le, 
^y"t" 

i1 l,ir' .: 
t 
r:1" JI[I.

Hl;l;'il: l,il:ili'ff i' nr* "g't,f rif(r"'#:,lJ3,'
;'i*"t';;i i:',''illili.f tili # {.ij;Tlt'ilil*^ ;:her lesisl:r"'" -liii' ii"' a,lu*" (id. zrt 20al,."tli'ilrl,r''',
Itlaclc voters' co'

liht.l'*r-;;"'i',i**,'x,ft 
;;l;;i1"]ffi ;.i,;,i;t';:[:'il"lili] H; t*" 'l*] '-"J",n" whiLe v'r'c t, rho

i li li,', *.* tl.,r": 
T,,,i' 

"iL i" ku" io i," 
"..' 

ir' o g ou o,' nr, o.t'"-

rrt'intary electiotl' *tl1t l'--'." ,i..". ,'nt,."senUttives hlrrl 1

ru*ffifi*l*r.tr ffi)'tl{,i{ii
[hs wlril"e votc

liir"'r"^t. (irl' at' 424-4-34) . ')isLrie[ 22, in Mecklcn-

Sennla Dislrict' 22' S91ate'i;"iil' lno*r'ot rlistrict'

',,Le'.,,r 
t'i?,.X;:'t'lX"XilLli.i,i"l i-"rn.i'z, r,tnck, and

(J'S' App' r!'al ' I rru I'ur""- 
--:,r.

't-_''"wttreonlysevetr'whitcttrttrlirlrrtesforeightposil'ionsin-:l**ln:;,i;4ffi 
:,f :ii':,i,,$*;*iri[f ,rnr.ilit

beerr clecLetl tn

whlte vote In I

APP' SIxr) '



0

lG.8% of l,he registercrl votet's nt'o blaek (ibid')' In
Mceklenbtrlg Cotrnty, 73% of the white voting age pol)tt-

i,,;il is registeretl'to vote, as is 60'8'/o of the black

,niiire ago lropula[ion (id. at' 24t n'221't' ll'lre blach

pnp,,frr,io"u is sir situaterl that one single-tnenrber clistrict

*ortA t," et'entetl with a 70-Oy" black popultrtion (id' at

Z}al. Untler lhe present 1tlan, no bttch senalot is part

of the tlelegation; howevei', a black citizen wae eleele(l

from l9?6-ilgO (r:d. at 3da). Tho black sena[olill in-

eunrlrctt[ (Alexnntlcr) reeeiverl 47/' of the wlrite vote in

tlre 19?8 ltrimor.y, anrl 4l /o of. Ll'te rvlrite vote in the gen-

cral eleetion; his sh:tre of the whit,,c vote droppel.l to 23/-o

in t,he 1980 ptinr:rry ('id. aL 42:.1. A second blnck canrli-

tlato (l'ollt), rrrnning in 1982, garnet'ed 32/" of Ure white

vol.es in l,ho prirrr:rry arrtl 33% in l'lro general election'

lbul.

INTITOI)II(J'I'ION ANI) SUIIIMAITY OII AII(IT'MENl'

Tlre disl,ticb eotlrl, eonsirleretl all of [lte evirlence' bttt it
rcachctl an ull,imal,o conclttsion at orlrls wil'h t'he eorreet

rrncl

sorno Irreflsttt'o of rncial

rnl,

i,iffiithl Tlrnl, is rrott, wlii[-Corrllnrss Tir[cttrlctl. lif,e-
-.--3t____) 

-

;ffiffi -htll ,.t'gtte t,haL [he tt'i:tl^ cottt'l', by 
.ig.rroIirrg

;;;;;;" nrino'it,.v electot'at sttccesses itr l1o rlist'ricts i.
issue, ctttlltl noi relr.qolr:rbly hnve fottntl a. violnIiort tttrrlcr'

tt,n 1,r'n1,". "eqttal opporlirnil,y [o ltar{icipat'e" statttlitl'tl'
sol c0n-

s. !!rr$prJbs--sgu! bc-

; ,t rtarle tlisptniti'u "@
llrrek4{iury tha[, lakerr lflotally, nffit' liffIy-Iirrrling

1.his is the lirst ease in this cou[t to uccortl plennt'y

appellute review to a l,rial eout'L's fintling of n violal'ion

,i'6,o lgBZ r,renrlrnent [o Secl.iorr 2 ,f the Voling ItighLs

Aet. That provision, enaetal afl,er an intense legislal'ive

sh'uggle, I'elrresenl.s a stuclietl eotttprontise thtt[ eontletnns

,rf,-ift"t" elector':tl lt.ocetlttres tha[ "t'esultj' in a tlenlal

of an "eqttnl o,port,ilnity to pnrtici,:rte in [ho eleet,rnl
procets." Thnt conelusiott is a tttatler of law, l'he pt'oper

conceptiorr of whieh must bp estrblished nnrl nssuretl by

this bour.t. This ultimate tlete'minalion requircs tleli-

ihis flctot presenL in virttrally any rlistric[ with a ra-

.:oify nrixcrf elect,t'*t, ntrtl t5trs cotrlrl jrrst'ify 
'eqrlirilrg

prop'ort.iontl rept'esenLnl.ion in all sttch rlistriet's' Con-

gress o.afted a pr.eciso stanrlartl fot' itll.elveltLion in tlte
iiectoral proe*ss, an4 firlelil,y l.o th:rt stn,rlar.rl reqrrires

ro.l.he tllstrlc[ corrrt rlirl not m:rko n firrrlirrg for (lnt tnlrtts (krunty

(sr:o J.S. ApP.24n-26n n.22).

[haI this jtrtlgmenI be se[ asirlo'"

AITGUI\IEN'T

't'II14l)ls'l'ItIcT(;ot,It'rEItRONtrol,sLYIll'l',l)1'IIA"t'
'l'tID Rrrl)ls'I'RIC',l'lN(; I'LAN A'l' lsstlE vl0lA'l'l'ls
NMIiNI)III'ST,;(:'I'I()N2OF'TIIT4V01'INGItI(;IITS
ACT OF I!'(i5 

I

A. Amenderl Sectton 2 (ltrnrnntecs Iivery Clllzcn 'l'hc

Itlglrl, To An fNrlrrn| olrporl,trnlty t.o I'nrllelllttle lrr 'l.lrc

l'olll.lenl I't'ocene

,. 'l'lro legislaIive lrflclrgt'ottntl of ntnentlerl Ser:Liolr 2

.trlet'scol'es i,ho cerrl,r''lity of l,he lrrinciples notetl :tlxrve

to tho eotrt;trotnise en:teletl inl'o thnl' law' Arrrenrlcrl Sec-

rl lva rvlll rrrrt rliseuss tlorrse I)inl.rlet, 8 nrrrl strltnl.tl l)lsl,riet 2'

becattso nppelllrnl,s' rlrrrlletrtlc l,o l,he rllsl,rlct <llttrt'g ctlttclttsltttt ns t<l

those rllsirllcl,s ls not wll.trln l.lre 1r:()Jre sf tlrc Corrrt's ttotntlotr of

probnbte jrr rlsdletlon.

[r.co tn strikc dowlt vir-

l,uallv atty sclte rlo--
iiil eleetoral rtional to nrinot'il.Y vot-

lon 4r1!p-
,iIu 

"n,ttlt 
must nssttt'e itself not onl.y tlral, a trinl eourt

l,rken ns a wltole

:lnil l,
swer to the rrll,irn4!e



I
tion 2 reflects the consensus of ntt overwhelming majority

of the Congress, reachetl only nfter an int'ensivs nnrl

tlovisivo .lobnto, wlrotlrer l,o entlorso or rojeet tho holrling

in City ol t4oiile tr. Bolclen,446 tl.S. l-rtr (1080)' 'Ihe

p,'otluJt, oi t6nt rlobnte wtts a ,rovisiott l'5.t' rl'es nol l'e-

quir'* pr',rrf of rneial animtts to esl'ablislr a violntion of

amenrlcrl seetion 2 antl ttoes not, allow pt'oof of electoral

failrrro solely or even preponderantly to esl'ablish a vio-

lation rrnrlerl l.lre Act. Cnrgru"s choso an nltogether rliffer-
arrt alrpr.oacll: As arloltterl, seel,ion 2 gunt'anlees-cvcl'y

eitizcn'*1,,^i i@ trL(-Eess rurl thus

ffiroce.ss itself.':
' inntetl irt Lhe g7th Con-

gress wlten II.R. 3l12 wns introdtrcerl to extentl certain
]eatures of l.lrs 196l-r Voting lllghts Act, anrl to r,orlify
See[ion 2 of tho Act, bcrcause of the tleeision in City ol
Mobile. Il.lt.31l2 woukl have elirninated an intent

stlntlard by forbitltling any juristliction from inrposing

or aplrlying "ny 
ele.ctornt praetiee "in a manncr which

.*uft" in n rlenial or abridgement of tho right' * ' ' [9

vo[o olt nceotlnt of t'aee nt *loa t r r,tt r! a tesL claimetl

'2 At tha snme llme, thc leglstntlve |ristrtry of nntcnrlell Secl,Ion 2

ln compllcal,erl, vnriegntett, and, otl occnslorr, contrnrllctory' 'Ihe

lnngrraie rrltlmntely lncorpornted lnto l,trls provlslon rvns proposul

by scnntor l)ole ns a menns of resolvlng n rlenrllock itr l,he senntrl

.Iurliclnry cornmlttce [hnt nrose nfter the senfttc corrsl.ltrrl.lon strb-

commlttee hnrt rojeeterl the llouse veralotr of secl,lo[ 2. ln tlrls sat-

l,lng, utrdue etnplrasls mttst not be glven to the vlervs of nny one

fnctlon in the controvorsy. The leglslnl.h'e hlstory nrttst be ttnrler-

storxl ln terms (,f lLq rlomlnnnt movement nrrrt frtnllnnrcnl.trl pttrpost:s.

stal;emonts of the nrnJority ln the sennte llclxrrt, whilo lllrrmlnntlve

on mnny lssucs, must be evnlunterl agnlrrsl, the recorrl estnbllslrt:d

hefore the congrcss ns n rvhote nnrl pnrtlerrlrrrly ngnlnst stnl.ementa

of the nrklltlonnt vlervs of lnrllvlrlunl ntembet's who lnslslcd ttpon

nnd errpporterl thr-. comptomlso. 'l'he ntqtonronlq of spnnlor f)ole- the'

"nnn",rr"nf 
ttto a,rrnnr,r-1a". nruat ntan l'o olutttt nnttitttlot tuoiultt'

r:r lI.R. 3l$8, g?[lr Cong., lst Scnn. (t$8t)' Seo lNilensiott ol the

Votittll Rilhl.t Act: lleotinlTs Ralorc lhc Stilteonm' on Citil and

cons,itution<tl Rights ol lhe llonse conm. on llrc Jttdiciury, 97Lh

Cong.,lgtSesg.l,t.t,at2(1081)[herelnnftorclterlnslrotrgc
lletinqsl.

0

lry its sttltporters l.o stetn frorn lllrite tt' Ile'17t;st'e'r' 412

ti.S. Zff 
-(19?S), 

anrl lllltitconb v- Chattis,403 l-I'S' t24

(10?l). Most oi tho tliseussiott i, tlo llotrso rega'tli.g
II.R.3tl2 rvas tlevolerl lo othor nslrcr:ts of t'he bill; the

proposnl [o arrnentl seetion 2. :rl,l.r':reterl lil.l,lo rlelxrl,e.rr As

pnsserl by the llouse, II.n. 3ll2 conlainerl llro resttl[s tesl,

in the original 5ill :rnrl a rliscl*inrer t1nl, ntttttet'ieitl tt1-

rlerropresetttttirltt it.self violatetl SecLion 2'rr

b. Afler l.ho llouse Prssetl II.II.3112, l'ho Scnnlo Srrb-

eotntniuee on the Orlnstil,trl,iott lrcgrn lteitt'iltgs ott two

bills, one that, cont:rirrerl [he resttll,s l.es[ in II'lt' 3ll2 (S'

31li) antl otro llra[ wotllrl ltavo rel.ttitrcrl l'lno Cil'11 ol
Mobile stnnrlar.tl (s. l9?li).to 'l'he etrsuingl tlebate focttsctl

on tho pt'ol)et' slanrlartl for Sc"ct,iorr 2. I't'opttnents of n

'esults 
icsl clielty at'gttetl l.htt t6e (],tttl,'s lrolling in

Cily ol lllottitr- insrrl:rlcrl disel'irninalor.y Pt'flcl'ices f''om
roviow becarrse of tlre rliffieull"y of oblairtirrg evitleltce re-

g:rtrling l.ho srrltjeclivo ntoLivations of legislators, e'spe-

"intty 
*tt",r l,he lrrncl,ices'in qrtestiolt wel'e arlopterl long

ngo.;' They profrosetl that tlre analysis shotlkl be bnsetl

tf See genernlly Boyd & Illnrkmnn, l'he' 1982 Arlr'ettdnrcnls lo lhe

ltol,irtll Rights Act: A Legislal.ite llistot'y,40 Wnsh. & l'aa l'' llcv'
lil4?, l36d-1:l?9 (1983) f hetelnafl.cr clterl ns llovrl & Mnrktnrrtr l'

lr The rllsclnlnrer provklerl: ."|'ha fnr:t l-hnt nrembers of n nrirrorll.y

grorrp trnve rrot been eler:trxl ln nrrnrbors equttl to the gl'ortp's l)lolx,l'-
fiorr of l,he populntion shnll nol., in atxl. of il.self , cottsl.itttl.l n viplltiotr
of thls eoctlon." lLlt. ltep. 9'l-227, !l?th (bnr., lst Sess. 48 ( l98l )

(emphnsls nrltled) lherelnntter eiLerl ns Ilouse lleporl.l. All,horrsh he

hntl Rponsored the rlisr:tnlrnor, Represcntnt.lve llyrle lnl.cr cotrt:lttrlcrl

tlrnt lt fnlletl to nchlevc lts prrrposeR. See I Volin0 Ritthts Act:
IIcafings oa s.5J, ct al. Relore thc stdteonnt. ott lhe (.lottslil.rtl.itttt

of the Scnn.te Connn.. on t,he Juliciarv, 971,h Cong., 2rl Scss' 407-408

(lgg2) (testlmony of ltep. Ilyde) [herelrr:rfter clterl ns.s('rttrlc
lleat'i'ttgsl ; irl. at 886-88? (lel.ter frrtm ltep. llyrle l'o Scrl' llntch)'

l0 sennl,ors t(enrredy nnrl Mnttrias (nnrl ntoro l,hnn G0 co-spottsors)

lntrorlrrcerl s. 1092, $?l;lr oong., lst sess. (r081 ), rvhlr:h rvns ftltrtrtit:ttl

to lI.lt. 3112. 127 Cong' Rec' Sl6G04 (tlnll'v erl' I)r:e' l6' l98l)'
Senntor Grnsstey lnl.rorlrrcerl S. l0?6, 9?th Corrg, lst Sess (ll)81)'
l2? Cong. ltec. Sl53?2 (rlnilv crl. Dce' 16, l98t ) '

ft See, c.g., I Sanat'e IIant'in11s t!)O (strrtcnrr:nt by Sen' Mnl'hlrs);
id. at 266, 266 (test.imorry of llenJnmln L' llooks, ftlxee' Dlr',



l0

uU)n tho variolls so-eatled "objecl'ive" -flt,l:t: 
irlenl'ifietl

in White v. lle,gest,er antl pre-City ol t[obile lower eottrt

cnses nltplying 
'thnt, 

standard. Crities of tho rastllts tcst

ngreerl, i-n ur..n.", l,hat n ltntling of ttnlawfttl vote tliltt-

tiin cotrkl tntl shottkl bc matle on the st'rength of objee-

tivo evidcnce, but were eoneernetl wil'lr, among otlter

things, tho liotentially-timitless seopo of tho test'rt A
principnl .nn."r,, **. tltu implicntion lef[ by the <lis-

"l"ilxo.:givenitslirniterlterms--tJra[nttmeriealtlntler.,'elr.csent,iiion of nritroril,ies wottkl not atnottnL '"ilt antl

of itself" to n violat,ion of Sect'ion 2--opponenls of the

resul[s tesl, maintainerl tha[ propot'tionirl t'epl'esentation

wottltl irreltrc[nbly follow sirnply frotn proof of some arl-

tlilional factor irlenl.ilietl in Wltitc or etsewltere''u An-

other tnajor er.itieisrn was l.hat l,he llorrso vet'sioll lacketl

:r ,,eor.o villue" ol. an .,rrltimal,s or tltresholtl eriteriotr"

otfter llrtn proportional representat'ion for evalttating

vote diluliotr elaims''o Supporters of lhe resttlts test re-

peatcrlty assttred ils crities l.hat, it was noL a nlantlate fot'

NAA(lt') ; irl. nt 290-2tll (tectlmonv of Vllma ltlnrl'inez, l'rcs''
MAt.DEF); itl. nt 8lB-8lg (I'relnre<l Stntement of Armnnrl

I)erfner). Another crltlclsrn wns thnt the lntent test fostererl raclnl

tllvlslveness by requlrlng n l)erson to be brnntletl ns n rnelsl before

n vlolnl.ion corrkl he found. See dd. at 1l8l (l'reDnred Sl'ntenrenl' of

Artlrut' Flemlng, Chnlrmnn, U'S. Cornnr'n on Clvll Rlghtr)'
rs A contplet0 rllsetrsslon of tho objectlorls to the resrrlts tesl' ls

eonl.nlnerl lir the Srrbeomrnlttee's Reporl'. Sr:e S' Itep' $?-4 l7' $7t1

Cong.,2rl Sess. 108-ltl, l2?-168, lGg-l?il (t082) lherelnnfter clterl

ns Sennl.e Reporl.l (Votlng Rlghts Act: Repott of the Srrbcomm' ('rr

ilre ()onstltrrtlorr of l.he sennte Jurllclnry cornm.) [herelnnfter clterl

nsSttltcomtn.|trrportl;seenlsoBoyrl&Mnrltntnnlilg6-140G(tlis-
cussing Sttlrcotnrnl ltee'n objectlons) .

ro Sce, c.g., I Sanale llearinos 616 (stnl'errent' of Scn' Itntch); id'

nt 229-231 (tcstinrony of Prof: Wntter llerus); id' nt 40?-408 (tesl'l-

mony of tttp. llyrle); id. nt '124-432 (tcsl'lrnony of t'rof' llnrry R'

(lross) : id. nt 666 (testlmnny of Prof' 'lohn lltrnzel); id' nt 1438

(testlmony of Itrof. lrvlng Yortnger)' See gonernlly Srrbeonttu'

Regrrt t42-1t6.
20 Strbcomnr. RoPort 137.

1l

l,ropot'l,ionnl repl'esenLalion,2t l'hat' it was nlercly il lllcitlls

i,f lr*r.ing th;t mi,oril,ies wel'o not elfecliv*ly "sltttt

oirl,'i of the"elect,t'rl prrrcess,'2 antl tlra[, givcn l'he hervy

t,rr,t.n tfis test l,laccil on a plaintif[-o,o stll)Pot't,' de-

scr.itrctl il, rts ,,iicr.erliSly tlitliculli''r-tlto [r'sl, wottltl in-

valirlato only thoso elecl.oral plactices ttraL tlelrictl lrri-
nori[ies an eqtral ol)por'[unity to parLicipnto in tlro-ptilil'i-

crl process.'r As Artnrtntl l)et'Iner, hcarl of tlro VoLilrg

ItighUs I'l'oject, pttl, i[, I'he "goal" o[ alrtetttletl SecLion 2

"is to erea[e an opportunity-trotlring moro than an

oppoll,ttnity-t.o par[icipate in tho politic:rl systenr'" I
{eintz llea,irtgs 821 (Preparetl Sl,ttetnertt)''r No,ct6e-

2|Seo,e.9.,lSetnlcIIeu.inge200(l'relxrrerlstntcrrrenl,rrfSett'
l(ctrnerty) ('.'['hc corrrts hnve mnrle clenr thnl. trnrlcr tlte staltrl:rrrl ilt

our blll there ls no right to r quota or to propotl-iottnl rrtprest'rrl.nl.ion,

even ln ttre context of nt lnrge electiono"); dr!' at 2'13 (ltenjrrrnirr l''
IIonks, ltrxec. l)ir., NAACI'); drl' 'lt 

283,287 (Menxtrnnrlttrn of ltnlph

G. Neas, llxee. Dlr., l,cntlerahlp Cortf . on Civil ltlghts) ; id' lt ?90

(tosi,inrony oI Armnnrl l)crfrtcr, Voting Itiglrls l'rojct:t)'
2e As Arnttrtrrl t)erfner, hcnrl of t.he Voting ltiglrls Project' Irrt lt'

"ItJhe prer:ise proof nright vnry, brrt tho essctrl'inl ek:trrcnL of }roving
ttini tt,o rlcinl mi116ril.y w:ts 'shut orrt,' i.c., rlerrletl acccss-tt6l. simply

l.o rvinrrirrg olliccs lrrrt [0 tlre opporturril.y to pnrllcilxrtc irr tlrc. elec-

tornl sysiern-was trlwnys rcqtrlred Iunrler pre-City ol llobile
cnsesf .'; I S,.rml.a IIeat'in11s 810 (I'rcpnrcrl Sl'ntcrnent); see nlso'

c.g., id. nt 223 (l'ropnrcrl Stntcmerrt o[ Serr' l(errrrcrly); drl' rtt 626

(l.estimorry of l)avirl Wnltrcrt).
2i I Sutnlc Ilearings il68 (tesl.inurny ('f l,rrrrghlirr l\lr:l)onrrkl,

Southctn ltcgionnl l)1r., ACI,U).
2f see, c.g., 7 senat.e Ilearinga 201 (testlrnotry o[ scn. tvlntlrils);

id. * Zil (prcpare,l Sln[arncnt of Sen. I(ennetly) ("eflccl.lvoly slrut

out of a fair opporttlnity Ito] particlpnte lrr tlre elecl'ion"); irl' nt

810, 8l9-820 (l'repnred Stntotnenl, of Armrtttrl l)crfner)'
26otlrerntrpporterso[thercsutt.qstnnrlnrtlnrnrlet,lresnmoprlinL.

Sce, e.g., I Sr:flale IIe.at'itt11s 30t-r (l'repnred Stntcnrcnt of Vihna S'

Illnrtlrrez, I'resirlorrt, MAl,l)nlr) ("Tlre lsstre tlren, ls not prolxrr-

tionnl reprcserrtnt.lon, brrt equnl neecgs to tho politlcal process");

dd. nt tl?2 (Lnughlln ltlt:Donnhl, sotrlhern ltegionnl Dlr'' AUl'U)
(,.whnt f,hoso [.pre-citu ol llobile] enses do ls estnlrllsh r:qunlity of
u:cess").Scenlsoid.nt22./,(l')repnrerlstnLonentofSen'l(cnnedy);
id.nrt276-27G(l'rapnrerlstatementoftlenJnrnlnL'Ilooke,['res'
NAACI') ; irt. nt 283,28G-287 (Mcmornndum from Ralph G' Neno'



1S
t2

less, the Constil,trtion Subeomtni[tee rejceterl [he Ilotrse

elTects tcs[ in favor of tho City ol l]lobitc standard' 2

Selirid,e llem'ht'11s 10.
e. To brealt the tleatllock, Settttor l)ole, with the bnck-

ing of the lrr.esirlent, ofteierl er cot,l)t-(,,rise vcl'si.n of

Sciti,ln 2 l,hat 
'esponrle4 

to critieisrns o[ [1e efiects [esl;

5y introrlrrci,g,,aillitional language" ineol';tot'nterl fi'oln

lYtlte v. Ile,gesler "delineating what' legal stan(lartl

slrouttl apply in,ler tho resul[s tcsl" nntl "cla'ifying thtt
tthis tesii is not, a tnantlats for pro,orl'ional re,resenl'n-

t,ion." 2 Senal'e IIeat'itt,gs 00 (stttenrent of Sen' I)ole) ;

id. al 68-59. 'Ihe rnost signilieant, fen[ttrs of thti com-

protnise wits [o mulify at,ti 
"*1ratt,l 

l,he language of the

ilr,,ro-1rr."etl trill to ensttrs that "equal oplrorl"trnil'y," llof,

"propoil,iottal t'esults," would lre l.lre lcgnl test' Senrte

ttcport 193-194 (Attrlil.ional Views of Sert' l)ole) ; id' at
'ltli (Supplernetrlal Vicws of Sen. Gllsslcy)' As Senalor

l)olo pui il,, llecause his version of atnenrletl Section 2
.,foeustesl 0n aecess to the proces.s, not eleel,iolt t'tlsttlts"

12 Sennte IIearinlls 61-62), the qttes[ion to lrc attsrvet'etl

is "not wlretlrer lrninoril,ies] have achieverl pro;rot'l'ional

eleetiort t'esttlts," but "whetlter metnbers of a protec[etl

class enjoy eqttal aecess. I l,hink that, is t'he thrtrsl' of

nur eorrptrtttise: equal aecess, wltelher il, ls open; equal

aceess to tlto polil,ial process" (rrt. a[ 60; see also 2 Sctl-

ate lleatirtgs 46 (Sen. Leahy) ("[ilt Is the opportuni[y
to par'[icipate, not [hs actual use of that righ[, which is
crrrcial * r") ). Tho Cornnritl.ee atloptetl Sen:tl.or Dole's

conrptrrtttise (irt. at, BG), as ditl l,he entire Senal'e (l2B

C,rng. Itec. S?139 (tlaily ed. June IB, IgBZ)). Althorrglr

the Senato bill rlilteretl from l,he Ilottss version, the

Ilouso dispensctl wiLh a conferenee arrd atlopted the Sen-

tto bill (ict. nt IISB,IG (tlaily erl. .Ittno 23, l9B2) )."

l*fi;*ti,, t, lt" nrr,,,t"l.ion wi[hirr l'he jtrtistlicliotr'"'
tl *'Rather,

F)xr-.e. l)ir., Lenrlership Conf. otr Civll lllghts); id. nt 306 (l'repnrrrrl

Stnl.errrent of Vllrrrn S. Mnrtinez, Pres., MALI)ttF); frl' at ?06

(Munorlrntlttm from Frnnk ll. l'arker, l,nrvyers' (lomm. for Clvll
Itlghl-c I.lrrrler Larv).

20 Tlrere wns lit[le rlebnte in the lkruse, nnrl, wil.h ono trxceptlrtn,

Dr) ono rllsngretrl witlr l,hc thrust 0f sellntor l)ole'o poeltlon thnt

the original results test nnd the cotnilrottrise vet'sion of

amerrleil Sccl.ion 2, as well ns priv.te sttplrorl'et's of t5e

bill,.n agreerl that, proof of minor.it.y urrrlet'reprcsenttl.iolt

"equal ncccss" nntl ntt "cqrrnl opportunil'y [o p:rrtir:ipntc" rv[s l'hc

sl.nrrrlarrl for amenr.terl sccl.ion 2. sec 128 (jorrg. Itec. IIll8'|0-tli)841
(dnil.y erl. June 23, l$82) (Itcp. lltlwnrrls); id' tt llilS4t (lle1t'

Sensunbrennor); irl' at 113842 (ltep. llvtle); irl' nt' Il:18'tG (ltcp'

But.ler).tlrltseeid.ntIl3844(Itep.Lungrcrr)(rlcsr:ribirtgstftrrrl-
ard in l.ernrs of lntent).

2t sottnl,e lk:port l0$ (Adrlitionnl Vlcws of Sert' l)olc); Sennto

Itoport 33; llorrse Itcport 301 128 (krrrg. tlcc' 5664? (rlnllv etl'

Jurre 10, 1082) (Sen. Grnsstcy); id. nt 56$20 (rllily erl' 'lrrnq l7'
lg82) (sen. lrntch); irt. nt scg6l (sen. l)ole); 18 lvcckly comD.

l'res. I)oc. 846 (Juno 20, f 082) (Prcsirlent's slgnitrg sl'al'cnrcnL)'

20 As Scnrrl.or Kettnerly explolned his vclsion : "Scalion 2' as

nmended. toould ttot ttutke nt.ere laihre ol ilritroril,ics ltt toitt ?t'qlrtr'-
ti<tnal relrresenlnhion o tiolo'tion, evert il lhttl camc as lhe t'csril| ol

at ktrge elcatiotts. I'tnlntllls worrkl hnve to provc tlrklitlonll fat:tors

estnllllshing ttrnt, ln tha totnl eircunrstnrtcos rrtllrority voters ttot

only fnllerl ,t() win' but wer.e eltectlvely shrtt ottt of n fnir opltot't.tt-

nit; ttql pnrliclpnta ln the election'" l 'Srrfla!r: Ilearings 22il

(enrphnsls ln origlnnl) ( I'repnretl Stntcnrcnt) '

2u Seo Subtonrm. IlePort 139-14?'

so llenJnnrln llooks, f4xer:utive l)irec[or of the NAA(]1" lnnrle this

lxrlnt durlng tlre scnnte henrlngs: "l woukl sny lhnt-nnrl let me be

vcryfrnnk-slnrlllyprov(-ltrresultsltotrltlnotlleenotlght,otrlggrlr
l,ho mechanlsm of set:tlon 2. lI worrtrl only triggnr it if tlte rcsults

wero cnuscrl by sorne prnctlcc. Ilesults nlmply trigger looking nt thu

2. The legislative lrislory l'lrrrs t'evertls l'lr;rl' l'he-e.6tl-C

protnise cncompirsserl tlrree key arens of conscllstrs. lrirst, )
[,*.o *n, *t,,;*,,.",,, oU'"U'-'ont ,."tt tttt'u"' o'Ut"n;;J? '
i be necessitrY l'o eslnb-



vote tl

olM
A

14

wns a neccsstt'y btrt not a sttflleient element of n stteeess- '
ful vote tlilul,irin claitn, as the Cottrt's tlecision in White

16

prirrcip:rl sponsot of the eomprotnise Secl iotr 2 [llnt'

pnr*",i [he Congress, provirle ln .nttl'ltot'il':rtive 
gtrirle to

l.he s[[tute's eonsl,t'tt,:t'iolt," sl'al'erl in cxpl:rlra[iorr of Ilis

;;;;"1, 'ilelil.irens of all rtces ate errl'il"lctl to ltnve ntt

;;l;;i;i;;,,,cc of electirrg c:r.rlirlrtes'of [hcir clrrice, lrrrI if
;il;; ,;'; it,irly afin,ttJrt t'at' opportrrnitv' antl l,se' Lho

lari shoulrl offer lro retlress'" Seiat'e lteltot't J03- (Arltli-

tional Views of Serr. l)ole)' Senlttor l)ttle tnirrle tlte same

;;i;; rluring the lloor. rlebrl.e on his eornpr.olrrisc !t.21
bo,,g. ttec. SOoOt (rlaity etl' June 17, ll'82) ) antl :ttklerl

l.ha[ (rlbftl.) :

Iltlhe stnnrlarrl is whether or no[ lho poliLicrl proe-

esses aro eqrrnlly "o1ten," wlrether t'lrere is itccess'

iuft"Lfro. they nr:e o;rcn in l'ltnb tnentbet's of n pro-

i".itf class itave t'ho snme opporl'unil'y lts others tn

perr,Ulcipato in the ltolilical pt'ocess and [o elcct calt-

ili,lt,tes of l.heir t:lroice'

ln l.csponsc trl l qttestiott ft.otrr Sett;ttot.,|.lttrt.tntllttl

whether "tlte focrts tin thc section 2 stantlarrl lisl ott

olual access to l,he politictl process ol' is ' ' ' otl

*ir.tt,"., n nrinori[y gi'nup has aehievctl eqttal 
"19!!tu-"

resulLs?" (fd. nt, Sooilzl, Senator l)ole replietl (ibirl') :

'l'he frrctts in secl,ion 2 is on eqtttl a-ccess, as..it

shoultl bc. I llrurrk [[re sctta[rlt'[ot'rli|.ccLiltg tltc

;1,;;;i.ir.. I ltnow o[ tto one in lhis Chaurber atttl I
henrrlnool|e-llr}ywltet.eetsoinrlicatel,lrnrliUslrrlrrlrl
lro otlterwise. lt slrorrlrl be on llceess. Is the sy,sl,etn

o;len l,o lrool,le il, I(tltstts, Sorrth Crt'olintt' Nttrth

ij:,i'oliu^,'C:riiftrrrrilr, Ncw York, rvhct'evet'? l)o tlrey

lutve aeeess anrl :tn opllot'l'ttnity l'o cts[ t'ltcir vol'e?

lL is n,,t n righl, 1,0 ciei:t sotn(xrno of llrcir. l'ilce bttt,

il i, 
"r1u,,t 

o".o., trrrrl lftrvirrg [hcir. votc courrlerl.

Atnenrlctl Secl,iorr 2, Senator l)ole ftrrther explltittcrl'

woukl "lrlbsolrttcly noL" pt'ovitle ttlry rerlt'css "if t'lrc

tf See, e.g., Gt'onc Oitu (itillct1c V- Ildt, No' 82-?92 (Felr' 28' 1984)'

effp ,,p. ll; Nrm,ft llotl'tnt llil' ol lllua' v' llclt' 4f'0 U'S' ltlZ' lt27

rii,tzi. ,rtits Is p,|rl.lcrrlur.ly l.rul) giverr serrrrl.or l)0lt:'s plvotal rolo

lrr l.he ntlopl,lotr trf nrttt'ttrl"1f s1';Iiolt 2 rrttrl tlrc ttbsent:e of n cott[er-

or,"o ,olrrrl on lhe Ar:t. Sec Norllr llauut' 466 tI'S' il 627'

the lower eott

n ame n 2 eases.tn

foeuses nol, on gttnranl,eeing eleetiotl resttlls, brrl insteltl

on secut'ing to every citizen the riglr[ l'o utt equal "oplo-t'.:

tunity r * r to pariicipate in the polil'ical p.oeess t ' r"

(42 
-U.S.O. 

l9?S). As Senator l)ole, wltose views' a$

lrracl,lces; thnt ls nll." I Sennte llent'ittgs 2li?; sea nlso' e'g'' id' nt

283 (M"rrur.nntlttm of Rnlph G. Nens, [r'xgs' l)ir'' l-'enrlership Conf'

on Civil ltlghts); id. nt AZO (l'nugltlln Mcl)onnftl' Sorrthcrn lte-

glonnl t)ir., A(:t,U) ("I rlo ttot know of n slnglo enso * * * t-hnt

Jnys the ntere n5s.nce of 1t'ckn from olllce ln evcr etrough to vl.lnte

cltlrer section 2 o[ l,he l4th or tlre l6th nntendment' Not only nrc

there no cnses tlrnt ttnve ever sald that, but overy cnse snys preclsely

tho opposlte"); dd. nl. $t-r? (I'rof. Normnn l)orserr); id' nl' !tB? (I'rc-

pnrerl Stnternent of Jrrseph L. Itauh, Jr') '

$l llecnuse the Sennte endorsed thls ptlnclplc an well ns 
-tlr^o

Corrrt,s declslons ln lvhitconb ftnd lvh.itc whlch harl enrrneinted lt,

ttrcstatetnerrtlnthellorrsereportthnttheconslstentdcft:ntof
,nfn,r.ftv or mlrrority-bnckerl enntlfulntes llr n[ nl'-lnrge sysl'ern ltself

wrultl estrlrllsh n violnt.ion of tntendtxl Section 2 (Ilouso lteport

BO-CI) rloes not exptess Cottgress' intent' See nlso pnge 1? trote

iltl, infra.
n!See, e.0', ltlack l'olere v' IllcDotrottlln, 666 f'z(l I (lsl' Ctr'

l9?7); Ilcttdt'ix v. Josc1ilt,66$ F'2d l2ti6 (6th Olr' ll|77) i l)ote v'

tluoir.,,6il9 tr.z(l 1162 aSth Clr. t0?6) i Zinner t' filcl(cithe'tt' 48(t

f.zd i2$? (6th Clr. l9?3) (en btnc), nlI'd ott tttlrer grottttrls stlr

noltl. Ilost, Cnt.t.oll l,arish ^Sclrool 
Btl. y. ll/.t,sholl, ,124 U.S. 030

(llr?6);srtenlsolsttnnl,-lle'm'ittgslzlF-lazli(Appentllxtol're-
rlo.oi 

'it,,t"ntettt of trrnnk tt. Pnrker, t'ttrvytrrs' Colnm' for Clvll

ittgf,U Un6cr t,^w) (c,llcctlng cnses). 'l'lre (l.rrrt rliscrrssetl tleso

fnJt,,rs in llogtn'e v. l,odga, C68 U'S' 613, Gll)-620 n 8 (l{182)'

srseo llrtttse ttr':porl,00 & n'104; Sennl'c ltr:lxrrL 2?-30; irl' nt 104

rr.za !1 ri (Arltlll.lorinl Vlews of Son' llntch); irl' nt l94 (Arklitlonnl

Viewsofsctr.l)ole)';iit'aLt!18(SrrpplcmerrttlVlewsofSett'
(lrnssley); 128 Clong. ltec. 56$41 (rlnllv erl' June l?' 1082) (Sen'

Mrrthlns;; frl. nl Slitl6l (Sen' Dole); irl' n[ llttS4t (rkrilv etl' Jrtne 2!l'

1082) (lteP. ltrdwntds).

I

I

sn(l &s a



16

pl'ocess is opeIt, if there ls equnl fteecss, if l'here nre lro

ir,,rriers, tliiect or intlireet, thrown trp to keep sotneotte

ii.,rn unting or hnving tfieir vote countetl, or regisler-

ing, whateiet ttre p.,,i.t. mny-inclttrle" (il'f(I')' ln his

,iJw, so lottg as "ltlhe polit'ictl proeess lcatling l'o nom-

inal.ion or etection lisl i * * equally opetr [o ptlt'icipa-

tiorr 5y tnemSers oi n cl:rss of eitizens wil'lr,trt reg:rlrl

to rae-e, color, or langttage ntinority" there coultl lro[

he "n ricnitt or abritlgemen[ of the riglrt to vol'e- ttntlet'

the :rnrcntltncnl." (128 Cong. ltec' 5?120 (thily ed' Jttne

18, l9B2) (colloqrry lrc[ween Sen' l)ole zrnd Sett' Gorton) ;

sce :tlso il|.. trL S?tl9 (Sen' l)ole) ); cf' lVhitcont'b v'

Chtuis,403 Ir.S. :rl, 153.

Srrpportcl's of nntcntletl secl'iorr 2 irl Llre Senal'e eclroerl

Sun*i,i. I)ole's ttttderstnntling of his eotnprotnise ittneml-

tnettt [o Secl.ion 2. 'l'hey r.epenterlly emphasizctl l'htt l'he

llrovision gttitt'ltnteetl "equal ltecessJ':rn or .an equitl o1r-

port,,nity io parl,icipale," nn but- l'hat it' did no[ apply

il,".u ,niruri[y votci.s or cnnrlirlttes "failetl t.o p.r'tici-
pale given atr equal oltporttrnity" n' l'o tlo so'm Thcse

sl,ttemort,s tlemonstrtte that' l'he suppot'tet's of Seral'or

ilirto'. eompt'onrise versitttt of ntncntletl Section 2 slrarerl

lis consl,^icLiolr .t its tet'ms. Accortlingly, tlte eenIt'ttl

issrre unrler. nrnenrled section 2, as all palt,ieipilnts in

-"-Dt.,128Corrg.ltec.56666(rlnllverl"lrrnel0'1982)(Sen'
tlorerr)j; nt:cortl, dd. nt 56600 (tlnlly crl' Jrrne $' 1982) (Sen'

Stevenr) ("the lssue to be tlecirletl utrrler tho resrrtts tes[ ls whcther

the polltlenl pro(:e$sos nro eqrrally open to nrlnority vo.ters")'

sr l2g cong. Rec. sG660 (rlnily erl..Ittne $, lg82) (sen. l(ennetly);

id. nt 5666? (Son. Steverrs)'

'trlS.g.,irl.nt56??9(tlnllved"lrrrrel6,lgS2)(Strn'Sltecter)'
strAccorrl,o..g.,iil.nt5064?(rlnilyed'Jrrnel0,l082)(Scn'

(irnssley); id' nt S0?l? (tlnllv ed' Jtrrre l'l' 1082) (Serr' Tower);

ta. nt ioztz_sG?|8 (dnlly erl. .Iune l?, lg82) (sen. Moynlhnn )-;

irl. nt S0g$4 (Sen. Konneriy); ibir'' (Sen' lltrllirr); id' nt S?ll0 (dnlly

erl.Jrrrrel8,1082)(Sen.Mel'zenbnum);irl'nt'S?lt8(Sen'Snss'er);
id. nl. S?t:18 (Scn. Robert Byrd)' As Senotor Robert Ryrrl lrrrt lt'
l'[tlt,o luw geoks to proteet the rlsht to vol'e' not Lhe nbility to be

gttnrnntecrl eler:tlon." I0id'

t7

lhe Sennle floor tlebtrte ngt'eett, is whelhcr I eltnllengcrl

elcctoral ptttgt,iec "resttll,lsl in the rletrial of eqrml ilc'ocss

[o any pliase of l,hc clectornl pl'oeess for rrtinoril'y grortp

tnentdetts" (Senale l{eport 30 (enrph:tsis ntlrlcrl) ) 'r"'
lr. The foregoirrg tlisctrssirtn mal<es cletr thr[ appel-

lees err in chriininf t5:r[ rlisl.ric[ cour['s li,tling [lurt the

inrrltimerntrer tlis[rlc[ plnn rlilutes 5l^clt vol.es is s,bject

to Ferl. R. Civ. l'. 52it). IVIol" l'o l)is' 2t, 3l-t-36' Lik-c

pr*,tt*t" eause in l.he llw of [orl's, the l'ertn "rcsttll's"

.nquires tn evalull.iott of l.hc fuc[s irl lighl' of t'he pttt'-

r0 Tho leglslative bnrkgrountl to nntenrterl ser:l,lon 2 nlso ntrtkes

thlspolntclenrinnn,rl.lrerrvny'Unrlcrnmenrletlscctirrnl-roftlre
l"i, ju.t..il"t.lons wll.h a hlstory of rliecrlrrrlnntion torrr.hllrg illx)n

,,*f,tg tnny nol, obtnitr nlrprovnl io enforco chnnges lrl thclr nlcctlon

tnws thnt irnve the enecl i,f cnrtRing n retrogressi.rt in tlte lxrsil'lon

ol mlrtrrrltles rvlth resnect to l'helr r:xerclso of l'hc frnncltisa' Cit"tt ol

l,oc.khattv.llnitedsCnles,4$0U'S'126,1:t3-'36(l$83);llcerv'
tlnileit.Slalcs, 426 U.S. l:10, l3? (19?6)' The leslslntlve historv of

nrnenrlttrl Seetion 2, however, conclusively shows thnt thc Set:l'lort 6

retrogresslolr stanrllrrrl wns not ittcorpornterl lnto Ser:tlorr 2' Selrnte

Itr:port li8; irt. nt 104 n.24 tl I (Srrpptementnt Vlcws o[ Setr' llntch);
l2g (long. ltec. lI:lB4l (dnily erl' 'lunc 2il, l$82) (remnrks of ltep'

ior"onlrronnor rvlth Rep. ti)riwnrrln cottettrrltrg); irl. nt 5?006 (rl:rily

crl..lrrne I8, 11,82) (Seri- l(errnerly); id' at SGll3O (rlnlly etl' 'lrrtra l?'

iogz) tS"ti. De(lonclnl) ; 2 Stmolc Iler"ri,agt 80 (Slntt:rnerrt of Sett'

Dotei ; I Scnate lleat'itt|1s 414 (tesl'lntony oI t':rrrghlln Mr:l)onrrkl'

inuti,".n Reslonnl l)ir., AOt,u); irl. ut 44!t (tos6rn.ry of Mnvor

ii"n.v 1,. Mnrnh) I irl. nt g0l (l.esl.lrnon.y of Arnrnnrl l)erfner): id. nt.

801-802(colloqrrylretwerlltllclr.Scnsclrlll.elln(!rntttlsetl.(lrnsslcy)l
irl.ntl2|-14(colloqtryllt,'lwr.etrSttlrctlrtttrt'(llltttscl[Mttt.kttrltttattrl
Juftu, 1,. Clrnmbers, l'rcs', NAAOI' l'egfil t)eletrsa l"rrrrrl); irl' nt

ifZf-lfZO (l'rcparerl St'ntcrrrent' of Nnl'hnn Z' l)ershowllz' Atrtt:r'
ju.rlst, congress). 'I.he Senrrte re,ort cxprcssly sl.ntes tlut "lp ll.ln-
[iif" ..rutO not esl.nblist n Scctlrtn 2 vlollltlorr tnr:rely lty shorvlrtg l'hnt

.'"f,^f1""*"0 renppotl,lonntcnt r * * lnvolved tt rol rogresslve cllet:t

on the polltlcnl strerrgth of n nrlrrority gtottp" (Strrtnl'e llr:port G8

,r,zzii. In otlrer wol'tls, whlle n retrogreoslve cffecl mny be relev:tnt

evklenco, ncces's, not cliect, ls the totrchstone of rr Set:l'lon 2lnrlrrlry'

Whlle'sonre cottrts have srrirl l'llnt rctrogresslon nlrne tnny vlolal'e

ntnelttte,l Sectioll 2, [hosc r:otrrlq ltnve [nilerl l'o cottsirlcr [he nltovtl

iogi"t"tf ru hlstor.y. Seo I(c[chrrrrt' \' l]yrne' ?'t0 F'2rl l3{'8' t40? (7th

tJi.. irrs4i, cert. rienlerl, No' 8'l-G27 (June 3' l986) ; lttskell v' Oliuar''

6G6 F. Strpp. l4?:1, 1482 (M'l)' Aln' 1983)'



,18
poses of tlre policy being served. Ct. Illet'r'o1tolitort, [ldisotr'
Co. v. I'ANn, 460 U.S. 7ti1i, '174 (f9BB) (corrstrtting

tel'nrs " 'envit'orltltental elTeel' " :tnrl " 'envit'onntental
impact' " irr light of "the eoltgt'essionll coneel'ns that, lerl

to the cltacttnent of NINPA" ) . 'llhe qttestion untlet
ametrtled Section 2-whether a p:trtiertllr eleetoral prtrc-

tice "resttlts" in l,lte deninl of "eqttnl ilecess" to tlre polit-
icul proeess-tlrtts cnlls for tnore tltnn a ftrel,ttal eotteltt-

sion nol, only lrceattse Cottgrcss esehcwetl relitnee ttpon

a "rneclt:tnical 'lloint eoun[ing' tleviee" [o t'esolve Seetion

2 elairns (Senat.e lteport 29 n.l lB; see l28 Cong. ltec.

S0648 (tluily ed. Jttrre 1?, 1t)BZ) (Serr. (lrasslcy) ) ; brtt.

itlso becnttse Ilte ttntletktlting t'cr;ttit'es a cllef ul an:tl-
ysis of l,he challerrged'electoritl ltrocess, lts infol'lltctl by

its actunl opet'zrtion, ineltrtling tltc ltotttlttlntifirble, brrt
rrrrtlcnitble, fucl, that a nuntcric:tl minority mity e,ret'eise

srrbskrntial, atttl somel,imes tleeisive, inlluence upon llre
pr'()eess. See- lVltit,comb, 403 U.S. at 149-165." 'Ihe Corrrt
hrrs recogttizetl in a variety of othcr sittra[iorrs l,ltat it eon-

clusion lxrsetl litrgely ttpon the applicaliort of :t rttle of
Itw [o a pat'lieulrtr set of faeLs is a legal, not a faeLttal

conclusion., Itt ttltlition, for pl:rintiIIs as well as rle-

'ft Sce, c.g., llthitoomb,40S U.S. nt 160 (footnoto onritterl) (rvlrere

"ghctto votcs wct'e cril.ical [o l)errroct'ntk: I'nrty attcceEs * * r lt
set:ltrs unllkely tlrnl, the I)ernocrntlc l'tlty corrlrl nlTord l.g trvorkrolt
tho ghetto lrr slntlng ll.s cnnrlklntes")) llote v. lloore,6i!3 F.2rl nt
ll6il, l166 n.4 (notlng that locnl vrrlets "lt:tvc a sl.rong nfllnlty for
inr:rrrnlrcrrl,s" nrrrl thnt. etrch enntlftlrl.I.e's 411/p blnek constltrrenr:y

"cnrrrrot be lgttorerl rvith lrnptrnlty"). Seo also .Srrnrnon v. U2ianr, No.

l'-81-4S-CA (tt.l). 'l'cx. Jnn. 30, 19t14), nl['rl stt0 lorrt. Slrnlcc v.

Srrnrnon, No. 83-1823 (Oct. l, l9B4); ltttge 22 notc '16, frrlrc.

rr Comlrnre, e.o., Ilntpar & Roto, l'ublishot's,lnc. v. Nrrlion llnler-
priscs, No. 83-l6112 (Mny 20, 1085), sllp op. 20, nnrl Slrickland v'
lVoshingtott, No.82-ll-rl-r4 (Mny !'1, l0tl4), slip op.27-28, with ll/ain-
rot'i17ltl v. lVitt, No. 8il-142? (.lnn. 21, l986), slip op. l6-17, nnrl

l'allon v, l'outtl,, No. 83-l)E (Jtrrre 2G, l!)84), sllll op. ll-lil tt
n.12. See genertrtly Bose (iorp. v. (,insttrttct's llniott ol llttilal
Slolr.s, ltc., No.82-1246 (Apr.30, 1084). ln tlrls rcspccl;, the ln-
qrrlry ttnrlcr nmenderl Sectlon 2ls slrnilnr to lhe type of ntrnlysls

ilrnt nppellrrte courts follow ln deterrnlrllng whel.her t ilIrtlculnr
arljrrrllentlve procodure ls conslstent wlth rltrtr pr'ocess (c.9., lValle|s

I9

fetrdtnts ,,1.h0 stultes - -irr terrns of imp:tct olr fttt.ttl'e
enses ttrrrl frrl,rrre conrlrrcl,-are too greill, to entt'ttst tlttrm

firrrrll.y [o llte jrrtlgrncnI of l,he l,r'ier of fttcl" ('l]ose Corp'

v. Cinsnmers llttiort ol (ln,il'ed Sl,a'l'es, lttr'., Nrl' B2-l24li
(Apr.30, l9B4), slip op. l5 n.l?;see id. nt 15-2t-r)' Wet'o

[he ull,irrra[e issrte tttttlct' ttnetttletl Scet'ion 2 sirnpl.y n
rilresli0rr 0f fact, lrlttirrl.ills woul(l be tlisnbled ft'otn ellcr:-

tively ch:rllenging rlecisiorrs wtlcl'e, on !ln esserrl,i:rll.y

st:rnil:rrrlless basii, [lre cottt't rlel.e'mirrerl thlrt tlre "[ot:rlity
of thc cirettlnslnttees" rlirl ttol stl;lpot'l; l'heil' e:rse' Ac-

eotrlingly, ltec:rrtse is it, clear [h:rt an :tppcllal'e cottt'L

rnu"l, inil,rprentlen[ly t' t(l

t:rw ( llose Corp., slip o1r. l6)'ihis Cour.t is not borrnrl hy
-nletrtlx)l'

t!!r-aj
ll. .l,he l)lsll.lct (iorrrl. llllsapDllerl 'l'tro llnclors Altpro1lrl-

nle'l'oAnAnnlysls()fAppcllees'(llnlnr()fllrrlrlrvfrrl
Vole l)llrrl.lorr

In voitling tho rrso of rnrrlti-nterrrber rlistricrs in ,,tf
l0B2 ,on,rn,iit,ionnren[ ,lan, l,1e tlisl.rict cott.L tnnrle l'rvo 

1

frrnrllrrnenl.tl cr-r.or.s in consLrrrirrg :rnrl applving ntnelrrletl \
sccti0n 2, either. of which is srrlli<:ient to retlttit'o rcverslrl. \
IrirSL-Lbf-cou.rl--fAltrttl a vioktiotr of thc strtt.ule in l'he

-
v- ftlnf-rrof As:t'n ol lktiliation Silflritror.s, No. 8'l-6?l ('ltttrc 28,

l086)) nnrl rvhether n nl.nte lnrv vkrlntes [ll0 rirsl, Antlntltn0ttt
li)stnlrllshrnerrl. Olnrrse (e.g., ('irand Rapirl.s Sc[ool I)isl. v. llrll, No'

tt3-ll!10 (.Irrly t, l$8!i) ).
.r'l'ho rleeislons oI ttrls i]orrrt nnrl the lor',cr totttts lxrlh lrefore

cil.y ol llohitc nnrl nf ter l)irssngc |)f nnretrrlerl $rr:l.iolt 2 nlso nrtrke

thls ;xrlnt t:hrnr. These rkx'lsions ltnve etrgngerl itt n fnr ntt'te

,renrcirlng revierv of rr rllslrl:t court's n,:rlysin t6:rrr n,Srllcnll.n

of llrrlc 62(n), $,lrlch nppcllct's nrlvrx:nl,tt here, rvottltl lxrrttrll.. scrr,

e.g., ll'hil.cotnb v. Chaltis.403 U.S. nt 144-t65; Jones \' l:ily ol
t,r,,t,t,n"tr,72'l F.2d 364,38:i-38C (6tlr (:lr. l9B4); ll,:r-lrir,66l) F.2rl

nt l2G8-12?l i l)attii v. (Irn'r'tiso,t, 65i] F'2rl $23, $2$-!l3l (61'h (lir'
Itl??); Broias'1. Rtltidtts l'otish I'olie'e.lnt11,5o8 li"2rl ll00' llt2-
lllS (6tlr Clr. l$?5). 'l'ltc cottrt ln Vela*quez v' Oiltt of Abilttnc'

726 lt.2d t0l?, l02l (6th ()lr. t984), thrrs errerl ltt slltinll thnl' ntr

rrlilrnnl.e seetlon 2 firrrling ls n qrtestlon <tf fnet. 'l'lte cotlrl, rvns

rnlstnken ns lo l.he cerrtrnl tltrestion to lle onsrvcterl rttrrlcr the

stntttta. I'nges l't-t?, srt2ro.



2t\

abseneo of evitlonee that tlto "t'esttlls" of the lnult'i-

mernlrcr legislative tlistriets ehallengetl hcro tlenietl mi-

nn,'ity vot""rs :rn 'eqtral opporl,trnity l'o paltieiptte in the

oleel.ornl t)rocess. Secontl, tlre eottrt adopletl nn el'l'oneolls

.t.linitinu',f raciaffine.that tniseon-

"eivos 
l,ho pro;tcr foice of thnt criterion os an element' of

21.

Nor etn it bo Presttmtxl witlrottt ttloro lltltt."srrfc'., t"1-l-?

ior minority o.flicahotclcl's wottltl neeess:rlily ho i1,tnn,"-];/

tnrests of rninoril,y ttoktt's' See Utt'il'ul' 'Sl'olrrs v' IJ('flt'tt ol

,ir,,1tir-:ui*rs, 5?l'lr.2tl 951, $56 (trlfi Cir' t9?S)' Ac-

.n,:,liugly, ii ttro "g,:"uurnnu;' of nlrpelltxrs' clailn is sirnlrly

ifrut fi,r.if, Oaroliin c.ose to nso nrultinrenrtrer tlislricLs

wltet's "[het'c are srrflicieltt coneent'rzr[ions of hlaelt votct's

toforntrnnjoril,ylllacksinglc-rnemlrettlisl,l'iets',(J.s.
nprr- arl, tlieir claiur neces*ni'ity ftlls slrolt' of establish-

ing a violtl,iott.{r
h. Moreovet', in lltt'ee o[ t'he challetrgerl tlistricl's' black

enntlitlntes sttpport.etl by lhe blnck corntltrtnil'y lltve lteett

cleeted trntler-tlro clr:rtlengerl plnn in nutrlbet's lts gt'e:tt-:rs

or gt'en.l.cr f,/tora wottltl tlo'oxllecterl untler a singlc-mctnbcl'

plrin, atrrl black votct's hnvo wieltletl ittfluenco ovcl' o[lter'

a suecessftrl Section 2 elairn.
/ 1. *. Iiach of ure rlistricts is fl multimernber tlislticl.
Ilowover, it, is liHnly settled that, rnull.irnenrber clistricts

are ttot, 
'inhercntly 

tinlawful- Senate Ilepott 33; lVhil'c,

4tZ U.S. at ?66; Wltitcomb v. Chusis, sttp,,'ai see also 2

Sennte llcarings 81 (stalernenl, of Sen' I)ole)' While it
is tlue tlrat in eaeh of l,he dislricts a[ issuo hele it, wotlltl

bc lmssible to er.eate one or lnole silrgle-trrelrtber rlish'icts
witir efTectiva hlack vol,ing majoril.ies (sec pages 3-6,

sttpra'), this point, ezrnnot be tlispositive. lVlirrority vo[et's

havo no right, to the creation of safc eleetornl rlistricts
rnelely l,ecauso they coultl feasibly bo rlt'awlt. wltitcont'lt
v. Clraais established that prineiple prior l'o tho l9B2

atnendment to Se\ction 2, antl the Cottrt's I'eeellt slllllmxl'y
alllrmRnees in Broolcs v. Allain, No. 83-1865 (Nov' 13,

1984), rntl Stralce v. Scam,orr, No. B3-1823 (Oet. l, 19Bd),

lravo tlea{Iirrnerl that principle ttntler amentled Section 2''E

trnvenrlglrl,trrtrlerSrx:[ion2tol,hecrcnlirrltrlf..snfo',nlinori[,y-
eontrolletl rlistrlets, cven rvhortl ol'ltet' ohinet'ivo'J"c'k"$ 'c+"l"il'ulp)
t.o tt,u ntr,tlng , t"ol

;Fffi-, iil'I^:t?r'i;i!iltl I'P'tJ7y-*-
tn "fr-roi whlch'hns becn servetl ttpon the pat'[ies)' cl'clrrlolt "'l O/i I
srrper-mnjorlty rllstricl.s n' " 

*nl't"t of lttw is irrnPpropt'i'dte lol 
{ &l:t,

rcmedy n Secl,lorr 2 violntirrrr' 6
{{ Tlre tllstrlet courl, corrocl,ly recogttiacrl thrt n l:trvftrl stnte

pnll"y .ogn.,ling n l,nrticrrlnr eler:tor'nl pr:tctir:o is errtlllerl l'rr rveit{ht
'<iiiiu""i,t,, ariir ti.s. nt 140; aee llvhn.I/, v. ^sc([il,,il, 46G tr.s'

iz iingzl), brrt errcrl by rlisregnrrlirrg tlre Norl'h [)!lrolirrrt lrrlicy

"*^irtt 
lpfitting lcglslnilva tllstricts (J'S' App' 4t)l-50n) ' 'l'lrr:

c,rrrt ncknowledged thni "the stnl.o nrlrlttcerl [ni'ly persrrnsivc e-vi-

lcnco Lhrl, t.ho 'whole-corrnl.y' pollcy was well-cstnblislrerl hlsl'olicnlly'

ini"l"*rti,n,rte furrctlorral pttrposes' ntrtl rv-ns lrr il's origirrs corrt-

ni"iliv *lf.f,,rtrt raeint fortnrinl;ion" (id' nt 60n)' llrrt the crrrtrl; hekl

thnt.,ttrntntllreenmeirrelevantnsmnttet.srltlveltlpr.rlllrl,lrisprlr.
if.,,fo. legislative plnn" (ihdd') beenttstt l'he lcgisliltrrre cltose trr

iprit 
"n,,riiro 

s "onlil whett rtecessnry to mcet p'prrtrl'i,n rlevitl'i.n

.oq,rl.ornonl" or to obt'nin $ 6 precle'trnttr:e" ( ibirl' (ctnphnsls

nrtrterl) ). Thnt t'ensonitrg i* i't*lniy in error. 'I'he frrct tlrrt the

sl.n[s nrllreretl to lts p,,ti,,y 
"*,,"pt, 

where nor:essrrry l'o ensrrre thnt

onch vol.er__lrtnek nnil ,ulrite--h!l,li lris vol.e courrl,crl cr|trrrlly nrrrl 1.0

ensllrotlrntthcrenpp<,rtlonmerrtptnnrlltlnotctlllsol}rett.rlEresslrln
irr thrr politicnl sl;rerrgtlt rlf lllnclt volers (setr pngc l? nrlte ll!1, sttln.a)

strrcly eortnl,s ln the sl'nte's fnvor'

" In .Scailon, the rllst'rlet eottrt rejot:terl n Seetlon 2 clnlm [hn[
rnlnorlty voters were entitled l.o n " 'snfe' rtlstrlct ln rvhlch tha

mlnorlty ltopulntlon npproncltes $6V" oJ tho overnll polrulnl'ion"
(No. t'-gt-AO-CA (ltr.D.'l'cx' Jnn. $0, lll84), sllp op. ll-12)' Unrlcr

l,he ehnllengrrl plnrt, minority votors, whllc not gunrnnteed tho

nhlllty to eklct one n r-epreserrtnl.ive o[ thclr cholee, were fottntl to

"exer[ n nignlllennt lrnpnet" nnrl l.o "plny pivotnl roles lrt key elcc-

[lons,'ln two high mlnorlly lmpnet dlstrlcts (id. nt 16). slmilnrly'
ln Brooht, ttre plnlntllts urgerl the three-Jrrrlge dlstrlct cottrt to

create a congrcsslonnl dlstrlct with n G|Vo blnck poprrlnLlon mlnl-

mttm on the grorrnrl thnt, beenuse of torv voter reglstl'nl.iott nnrl

[,rrrnout ,rmong trlncks, l.hcy woukl be rrnnble to elect ennrllrlntes of

thelr ehoiee wll,h n lesser percentnge. In reiectlng the sttltttr-

rnnjority plnns proposetl by l,ho plnlnl'iffs, the eorrrt notrxl l'hul'
..tol-niOoA $ 2 I * * does not gunrnnl.ae or lnsu,e tleslrerl restllts,

rnrl it goes no furlher than to nltord blnck cll.lzrlns nn eqttfll ol)lxrr'-

trrnlty 1o pnrtlelpnte ln tho polltlcrl process" (No' GC82-80-WK-O

(N.D. Miss. Apr. 16, lg84), sllp olr l6)' 'Ihis Corrrt's srrmrn'rrv

nlllrnrnnces ln seam.ort and Rrooke estnblish that mlnorltlcs tlo not



seats ns well. fiven sineo I9?3, blaclt volet's irt Ilottse

Distriet, 23, who malte ttp 3$'3o/o of tIO poptrlation nntl

zB.C% of the registeretl ,t't.tt, have electetl a bltcl< metn-

ber of the l,hreelperson delegation' I'ago 4, stprn'{n^ Irt

Ilouse Distlict 2i, the 2l.B%' bltek minoril'y, eonsLil'trt-

ing ltr.l /n of Lhe registerc'tl voters, electerl n blnclt rel)l'c-

,"It^tiuo to it,s six-member tlelegnl'ion in 1980 ttntler a

substantially-itlenr,ical pr.etleeessot' to l-he challerrgal plnn

(J.S. App. lgn) antl reeleetetl hirn in 1982 rrntler tho

clrallcngeil ptnn. Pages B-'1, str,r'a' 'l'hc tlistrict cottrl,'s

error is eren eletl'e. i, Ilouto DisLrict' 39' In l'hat' tlis-

23

ptans in these rlisttict's have tpplrerrl'l'y etrltttncetl.-nol'

tlilrrtctl-lninolil.y votilrtrl stt'engLh'

In tlte t'etnaitring ttist''iclslllotrsc I)isLrict' 3(i attrl

Sonato t)isl.ricl, ZZ--black citndirlittcs lt:tvo been lcss sttc-

cesstrrl. Itiven [hete, ltolvever, Llrc 2(t'6/' blnck rninorit'y

itr tlro llottse tlisLricL, constitir[ing l8o/o of l'lre t'egisl'erc<l

,otu.r, clcctcrl n blacit ttretnbet td ilre eiglrl-tnernbet rlelc-

galion in lt)82, atttl n secontl bllck c:rnrlitlat'o (who los[

ir tlro genernl clect,ittrt) receiverl 39'/o of [ho white vot'e

irr l,lre ;i,'i,u^r'y. l':tges 4-r,t, stt1trn' Itr Setritte District 22'

alurouglr Lhe'24.3/r' black rninoril,y, corrstil,ut,ing 16.B7o

irt the"regis[eretl vol.et's, ltas not' been able to elec[ a hlnel<

Senat.or in the lg80s, a l'l:rck eantlirl:rl'e prevailetl [lrrotrglr-

22

trict, wltere 26.1,/o of the populat'iott is black anrl 20'B%

of tlio registeretl vote's are blaek, a blnclr eantlitlnte was

electerl to tlro live-nrember rleleg:ttion in 19?4' anrl rc-

electetl in 10?6. In 1982, ttnrler the ehallcngul plnn, [wo

lrlaelr re;n'esentatives, ot 40/o of the tlelegat'ion, wero

clectetl. Pagc 6, sttpra, Ily contrnsl', tttrtler the nlter-

rrative lrlan favorerl by appellees, itt eaelt of l'hese tlis-

tricts ilael< votet:s worrlti bo relegnl'etl [o one single-

rnembet rlisLricl, with a latge ltlacl< nrnjoril'y' The abilil"y

of black voters to contes[ lhe t'ernainlng setts worrkl be

lessctteri--intleed, in IIouse I)istric[ 39 rninolity voters

coultl have :r r.erlueed nurnbcr of rlelegttes-antl (tnot'e iln-
porl.anUly) l.heil electoral in[lrtcnee on [he other l'cl)l'e-

scnl.nl.ives wottltl be redttee<|.'n Aeeortlingly, jutlgerl simply

on l,ho h:rsis of reeent electornl "resltlts," the mrrltirnetttber

'u The poprrlntlon percenl,ngee ln the flve cotrntle'c tnny overcstl-

mnte tho nctrrnl votlng strongth of mlnorltles, lrtlcnttse the per-

centngc votlng rrge poputntlon ln thcse rllstrlcts mny be lcss thnrr

l.he poprrtntlon pet'cetttngo. See pnge 3 rrote 6, srqtro'

roAs I'rof. Arehlbnlrt Cox lnfornrcrl tho Sennl'e Srrbcommlttee'

"[v'lol.ers ln n mlnorll,y grottp mny havo oxnctly tlto snme oplor-

Uuntttes for ltnrt.lelltntlon ns other voters, evcn Lhorrgh no mentbets

of tlre group nre eloetert to oftlce' Ttre mlnorlty rnny not'vol'e rrs

n blrrc. 'l'ho mlnorlty mny vote ns n bloe brtt mnke lts lnflttenee

felt ln l,lre salectlon of ion-mlnorlty ennrllrlntes firr elecllorr, ln

frnrnltrg tholr progrnms nnd potleles, nnrl ln strpport of one or

more elndlntes ngnlnst thelr opponents'" I Seml'e Ilettings 1428

tf."p"*a Stntement). Indeetl, In the l$82 prlmark:s ln llottso

Dlstrlcts2sanrlS6,whlt.esdlrlnotllelrlncnntlldnteforenchoftho

lnn
,, Ap,etlcee seak t, rnlninrizc tho eisnllicnnce of t]:::..*:IllI

success on tlte groutttl (Itlol'. to Dls' 20-2?) tlrnt' the lgB2 electlon

;;;-;,,t "obrin,,sly nhertnl'lonnl"-nLtrll,|rtlng this eottclttaftrtt

lo [he rlistrlct courl,. Ilowcver, the rtistrlct cottrl,'s worrls ltnve boctr

int", ,,,i of context. 1'he corirt's finding (J'S' App' 3?n (footnol'e

omlttetl)) wns ns follows:

'l'here nro lntlrnntions front trecertt hlstory' particrrlnrly from

thellr32clectlons,l'hatnntoronttbstnrrl'lnlbre:rkl'hrougltof
Ett(:cess cotlkl be irntnlttcnt-.brrf' [lrcre were etrrruglt obviorlsly

ntlcrrnl,lonnl nspccl.s prcsettt ln the lnosL rcceltt elecl'lons ttt

lnnke that n nlnl.ter ol slteer specttlntlon'

ttr n [ootnoto, llrc coult trbserved thnt both p:rrties lrnrl ollercrl

evirlencetoeglnllllghrrltherthntl,lrrrl$S2tllecl,ionsllrcsngetln
;.t,r.nnkti,.n,,glr,, or l.htt urey wero ..ubarrnl.l0lrnl." The court sl.nl,erl

thnt lts "lintllng" lrr tcxt (qrrol,erl above) "reflccts ottr wr:lgltlttg

nf tn"r" t:onlllcting 1rrfu'errces" (id. '.t 
3?n n.2?). tL ls thtrs lnne-

eurirtofttr.n;lpellr-.csl-onsscrtthntl,lrcrllgtrlctt:ottrtnrltl;rterltlrelr
view thnt, l,lro 1082 elrlcliotts strrrultt be tllnrcgnrtled ag ..nlterrn[lotrnl.''

li fnct, the most thnt can be snlrt ls thnt the cottrt rcjer:terl l'he

,rpfrnrlug vierv--thnI thc 1082 elecl'lon restrlts shotrttl be rkrelnerl

ori,lun." thnt blnr:lt cntrrlitlntes woull nchleve evolr gronl'er sll('ccsll

ln Lhe "lrnmlnent" frtlure.

out the period lt)?l-r-1980. I'ages 6-6, srrp'o'{?

of nnrl n to [he vt rliT-Gfiffi rts con s t i ttr ent: ies

o;ren posltlotts. l'nges 4-l'r ttotes 7-8, sttln'a' Tlrnt fact reln [or<:es

itr" 
"on"trrt,tn 

tlrnL blrrr:ks hnvo not lteen rlenle<l erlttnt ncccss to

tho clecl.oral proccss ln these rlistrlcts by vlrtrre oI l'tre nrtrll'l-trtentlrer

frl:rn, lr^"r,,so the mnke rrp of the canrlitlnto.slnte lq its.lf n.tdlgg!!q!-r

;?
HJ
GI



24

Tlrisexpelionceeattttotbel'eeottcile<lwithl'hotlis[riet'
eourl,'s trnirting tlrat l.he chnllengcrl ltlan i'esul[s in vote

rliiution.'* lrrrleetl, the tlisl,ricl' eottrt never. al'tietrlatetl at

"ton(tor,t 
urrtler whieh "r'esuluB" sttt:lt as [hesa cotrltl strp-

irtt - eonelusion tlr:rl, l,he tnulli-tnenrber elecl'oral systeln

in 6rese rlist,ricl.s-_w1ic1 is t6e pr.ocetlur.e under ehallenge

-ig..tl6t,eqrrallyrrlrentollar.[icillal,itltt''llylllaeltvoters.T.he court only s*rterl-witiroul, t'cfet'ettce to acttt:rl restrlts

i,i i ny of t1e ch:rllerrgal tlistricts--tJtrt[ "l.lte success [5at

has blen achievetl by blaclt eantlirlttes lo tl:r[e" is "Loo

lrtittintal in totlrl nuntbcr antl l'tlo l'c(letlL" to sttpprtt't a

finding tha[ :r black cantlitlnto's t'itce is no longet' "n

signili"canl, atlverso faetor" (J.S. App' 3?a-38a)'" Ilorv-

26

ever, tlto clection of t'e;lt'esetrt'al'ives in nttltlbet's ns gt'cal'

;. ; grcatcr l.lrtll l-ho approxitntte bl:tck pt'o1rot'l'ion of

ii,o'pofr,,i"Lion, as irr Ilotise I)isLricl's 2l' 23' arrrl 3l)' is

;,;i.iy'not, "lninintal." Arrtl in llttttso l)isLric[ 3(i antl

Sen,r[" District 22, while lhe results adrnitl'erlly fall shott

of t sLandnrrl of ";ll'oporl'ional rept'esentation"--rvhielt

Co,rf,'uss l'ejecLerl ot t't," governilrg legal crit'et'io-n--rni-

,r.iiy cantli,lntm eil.hcr nrll n. hnvo beclr srrccess[rrl altrl

i,frlt,iy nte co,np*til,ive.6o In fteL, the rlisLrieb cortrl' iLself

lu,r.l,il",l that iltlhirly-livo yexrs uflet tlro Iirsl' sttecess-

ful cantlitlileies for. l,rrlilic oflice by blnch cilizens in t,his

cettl,ttt'y, it, lrns trow becotne possible for blnck ei[izens to

bo eleclerl to office trt ull levels of sktte government in

Nor[lr (lttt'olirta" (J'S. Aptt' 3?a)'
'l'lro rlisl,rici eottt't also et'rerl by diseotlnting the l)l'oven

lninoril,y eleclnral sllc(:ess on tJte gt'ottntl tlrab il' wfl$ "[t)o

lecertt in lcl:rl.ion to tlro long history of conrplelo rlen-ial

of utry elc'e[ivo opporl,unitiu*i' l,o sttpport' tlre conclttsiotl

{sltlsinnpprrtprinl.el.oconclurle,llssolnecourtshttvorlonc't'het
t.he stato -,,ri piuu,, thnt lhe exlstencc of pnsl' rtlscriminntion hns

not r.educerl the currenL potentlul clectorll Ellccess of blnck cantli-

rlntes. /llc1llilln., v. I1scottitrio' County, ?'18 F'z(l 103?' l0'16 (l-rth Clr'

l$8,1). 't'htt npproach mistrrnstrttes the governing legrll slnntlnrtl'

lmprolerly shiits the lrttrtlon of ptoof, nttrl requlrcs proven n11l grrn-

6rruc,i mln.rity etcctornl Bucco8s to nvoll Scction 2 tlnbillty. Neltler
{;,rugan"* nor Senntor l)ole ltnrl ntty sttclt rat;tllrenrent ln mlnd'

I'lges l2-t?, srr?tc, nntl prlges 2?-28, itltrt'
.DApDellccs clnim (Mot. to Dls. 27,41 1Srrpp. llr. l0 & rr.9) that

the distrk:t corrrt'g dlspnrngernent 0f btnck ek:t:trrrttl sue.cess ln tlte
chnllenger,l tlistrlcts ls strplxrrterl by llngrrrrgc in [he Sennte nut-

jority report, tt rloclttnent'whlch, rve hnvc nt'grtetl' ennnol' be [aken

n* rli,t,,rn,lnntive on nll colnts' ln nny evctrl'' lltc relxrrt slmply

notes(Senntelteport2gn.llli)thnttheelcctlonofn"few"mlnorit'y
rnnrllrlntes shoill(l not be (leenle(lieonclttslve lrtrcattso ll, woukl ennbla

elrrctlon olliclnls to cvnrle nmenrie'l Ser:l'lon 2 hy englrret:rlng tho

electlon (,f ,.n ,snfa' nrinorlty ennrllrlnte." 'l'hc ctrse elterl by thc

.,rfrrrt t,, lllustrate thls cnvent, Zinttnar, trrose ltt t conl'ext "rvherc

the nrrrll.i-rnlm[er Rystem wns tlevlserl, tlesplte fulstorlc pollcy nrrrl n

st:rl.e stthrte forbkkllng lt, ln renction l'o n tlrnmntic votcr regls-

trnti0n rlrive rllreclcrl nt blnckn, rvlto, nllhottgh eonrpt'lsing l-rll lrcr

crlnttlfihepnrlslr'sprlpulntlon,lrntln<ltlleenlrernrll,l-erltov<rte
untit toaz,, ittlnr,,k v',rtirs,6G6 F.2rl nt 4). GIverr l.lrr:se cltct,n-

stnnces,nn..nllrrtlltt:lrnngelnptllley__.wlrlclrcolltcirlerlwithln-
err:nserl bllck voter reglntratlon" (lvalfuae,6t6 F.z(l nt Gill-)'

?,irtlttt?r rlcelinorl [o trent rccent blnek electornl success ns rlis-

posil.lve.' appJr"* hnve fnilerl to prove flrnt lrtnck otoctornl sucress in |.lrr:ge

rtlrtrlcls ls nttrlbrrtnlrte to ltth hour etTorts by tho Cenornl As-

eernbly [o ettglnccr tlle eleetiotr of"8nfe" nrlrrority cnnrlirlltes Jo

l.hwnrlt n Sccii,rn 2 ctnlrn. Inrlce<|, the district ctttlrl, tnntlc lro rrlcrl-

Uon rlf nrry evklence tlrnt worrtrl tenrl to support stlclt n t:laitrt. Morc-

over, tho,llrt.i.t eorrrt notetl that"in rccent ytln|.s l.here ltns l-reett

a tncnsurnble lncrease lrr l.he nbilil,y nnrl rvillingness of hlflck citi-

,crrs tn pnrLlcipnte ln the stlrl'e's lxrliticul l)rocesscs ntrtl -irr its
guverl,mont nt sl.ate nnrl krcnl levcts" (J'S' App' 4?n)' 'l'ho rllst'r'ict

forrrt tliseounterl tSis lrrcrenserl pnr[iclpntion bccnttse of lts finrlittg

ui rr,"tot pol.rlznl,lorr (i,rrl.), lrrit thnt firrrtltrg ls llnwe<l ltt severrrl

rce perls (seo pngr:s 28-'113, inlm) '

ro The court,S rensorriilg ls also flrrrvcrl ln nttolher respect. Al-

thorrghtlrorllstrlctcotrrtnrn.lefactunlflnrlirrgsonnllistrict.lly-
rllstrJet bnsls, lt rlrew its rrlUmnte legal lrr[err:rrces regnrrliilg rnclnl

blrx'. votlng nnrl ttre elTect olt nrlrrot'il'y electoral opporl'rrnil'ies on the

bnsls of "l,tlho overnll testtl[s nchieved to rlntc nt nll levels of

elu:[lvc ollice" (J.S. App.3?n)' lt ls only ott ettclr n brtsls thnt tho

r:otlrt cottltl lrave hekl Ihnt blnt:l< electornt sttccess ls "trtinltrltrl" in n

rllstrlct srrch ns Ikrusrr l)is[rlcl, ilg, whero tho 26.1% hlnck lninori[y

Itne, *lt.h sttbsl.nrrtlnl rvhite srrpport, elecl'erl 4O'/" <tf l'he nl'-lnrge

reprcserrlnt.lvcs. !'o invnllrtnte n speciflc rlistrir:t on thrl bnsis of

gt.-rtarntlze.l gtntewlrle resttlts nl, .,oll ltrvels of cleetlvc olllce.' is n

,,lonr lcgnl crror. See ll'hite v' Ilcgesler,4l2 U'S' nt ?GO (re<lrriring

nn "lntensely locnl nppralsnl" o[ tlre elecl'ornl uelretne)'



oIr'ot'. 'l'lte lower eourL deelslons l)l'lol' Lo vttU lt! It'l1'1"1'\'

i-ill,eatcrlly ern,hasized thtt the key qtlestion is 1o!
J*i,,tf,..'il,u,.n *u* ,:rs1 tliseritnin:ttion brrt whctler 6rtl,
/rliscrirniltr[iolr plcveltl,s minoriLies fl'ont ctn'renll11 ltirt''
[+iriprrtinS in l.ire political process' See, e'{l', lletulrix'

65t) In.2rl fi 12701 Dnoid,563 lil'z(l at 030; Iirnrlas' 508

tr.2rl nt lll2; Zintrner, 486 li'.2t1 at' 1306; accoxl, Mc-

Cnt'1,11 v. Ileitdcrsotr,, 74$ F.z(l I134, ll37 (fi[-h 
-Ci.t'

1g841.", llisl.or.icul rliscr.iminll,iotr thtrt has t'estrl[ed itr

a currelrt klwer rninority r.egistrution rnte, fol' iltstatlee,

as llre tlistricb cottrt, fottntl to be the ease here ('I'S'

It1tp. 22tt-2(ia & n.22), is an entircly appropriate c9.n-

siilcr.rtiorr rrrrrlcr u,,en4c4 Seet,ion 2.n2 llrrt ptst, rlis-

crinrinttion t,hilt tloes not rletry ntittttt'it.ies ettrrettI ncce*s

l,o tho polilical l)t.ocess cannot sulrpol't I violrl,iott of lhe

Ael..n,' Anrl [o [ire oxtenI l,lr*t, Lhc tlistrict corrl't, lrelrl l.hat

6r As Senntor tlellin stnterl, "Itlho l)olc crtmpromlse ltns.n lr('lv
npplleaLion bttt nllorvs for n cottsitlernl'ion of yestenlny fnctors

rus well ns presr:ttt rlny goorl falt'h elftrrts lo rctnerly prlst mist[kcs

It the yesterrlny fnctors tottctt on [he new resttlt'" 128 Cong' Itee'

56$64 (rlnily erl. Jrrne 17, 1082).

r: I'hls hlstory mny hnvo hnrl nn clTecl. lrr ltorrse l)istrict 36 nnd

Sennte Disl,rlt:t 22, glven the trtectrlrnl resttlts lrr tlroge tligtrlcl,g;

brrt, vlerverl ln combinntlon wll,h ol.trer fnctor'6, it nppenrs ntrt l.o lrnve

nl,rri. lrlncks orrt of the eler:tornl process l6ere (xee grnges 32-34, inln\.
(ilven i.hc ftlct thnt nrlrroritles hnve been elerrtetl [o ollir:e ln llottse

l)isl.rl<:ts 21,2,;1, nnrl !19 ln lrumbers nt le:rs[ ns gren[ ns rvottltl bc

ex,er:terl ,,rrilo, n single-nrem5er syntatn, tle llstorlc,l tllscrlrnlnn-

tlorr fottnrl hy the tlistrl<:t eourt rloes not nppenr to hnve nfleclrxl

uro electornl opporturrlties thnt blnek v0tet's ctrjoy in l.ltrrse rlistrlcts.

r,i1'!he (llstrk:t cottrt thrrs ptnlrrly errr:rl by relying (J'S' App'

20[) rrlxrrr lnoperatlve nrrmbererl sent nttrl nlrtl-eilrglo shot votlng

.n,l,,lrnrto,,troiskrtelnw. Asthccortrl'itseltnott'rl (irl'nt'23n-24n)'

ttrose rcqrrlremcnts were lttvnlftlntetl nrore thnrr n llecnrft-' ltgo

(l}rlttslon v. Seotl, 3$6 tI. Supp. 200 (E'l)'N'('' lt'172))' nnrl l'lrere

is no l)nsis ln nmcnrlerl section 2 (or loglc) for conclttrliltg lhnt lhose

27

l)fls|, discl'iminat.iotl Porsisls irr tfie fortrt of racill b

voting, the eottt'I relitrtl lll)on an el'rolloous delinition '
l,h:rt corrcepl., ns wo will lal'er explain'..-.C.,r,gressc()lll(lnol,lraveexpr.es'setllnor.eelelrrlyitsin.

[enl.iotl not, to invalirlate lttttlt'i"'enrher tlisl'r'ir:l'ing Plans

*1,o,'o tninolil,ies h:tve harl :rrt equtt otttt [o pnr-

t.icipalo in [he elecl,ol'tl l)rocess, evcn- iI tltiltoril'y cfln(ll-

tl:rtes tlitl nol, witt n plilrort'ioiats share oI lhe seilts'r'4

C,,,rg,'nr* nrloptetl Sou,it'n'l I)otc's eolrll)t'omiso ltrecisely [o

o,r.rii.o Llr:rl, Serti,, 2 rvottlrl gtlfll'!llltce tnirr,r'i[y v.let's

!lceess to tfte elect<tr:rl l)toccss-ll(ll' eltsttt'o vicl'ot'ies for

ini,rn.ity catrtlitlt1es-rts llte Senate fl<xrr rlchat'c pl^irrly

ttelnonslt'ltes. l'agcs 16'17, stl'r'fl'' See llso llogrrrs' 468

ii.S. aL Gl6; lltiitaomli, aOS' U.S, nt 158-l l-rl) (r,trlti-

rrtctnbet' tlist.l'ic[s challerrgerl for "l'heir rvinner'-trrke-nll

,,"i,o"tr").ni 'l'he ltre-Ci.ty"ol A[olitc rlecisions of this anrl

ollrol' eottt'ls lte:rr orrt tlrat, tntrlLimelnber <listricl^s are not

tttrllwfttl wltere, ils llcre, minoril'y cantlirl:rl'es- arc :11!

eftecl,ively shttl, ottl, of the elecl'ornl pl'(rccss' 'l'he clrxsest

:-
norv-repenlarl ft'gal tnelsttte^q crtrtkl ltnvc nny currctll' efftlcI ott l.ltc

mull.irnernlrer sysl,etrt. Scc pitgcs 12-17, s;r1nt (rlisr:trssillr St:n' l)ok:'s

conrprotnlse).
iIt'he rllsl.rlct cottrt plalllly trtist:ottsl'rtterl l'lle nlgnilir::rll(:e of

(-jortglcss'. reJert.ion of tire pioportionnl represental'iott "rtnntlnrrl'.l'hc corrrt rllsrnisserl l.tre "proprrrl,lottnl rept'est:tllttl'ltttt" rllsr:lnitrler

ln Serth'n 2(t\ ,42 tl.S-(:' il)?:l(b),ls rnennltrg n(' nr(rr'('} thnrr [hnt

the fnct thnt blncks hflvc trttt betltt clecterl ln tttttnlrers pro;ml'tlottnl

to thelr percentnge of tltc popttlnl'lon "does not' rtlotte esl'nblislr thnl'

vol.c rlilul,lon 1ns resrrlterl" ir-s. nlttt. l6n &, n'13 (em,1.sls nrllarl))'

As rllsctrsserl nlxtve (l,uros !l-t?), the rllscltrittler wns oxPtcsslv

rtrnfl.erl l,o nvolrl nrry srtth llnrrow lnterpretnl.ion. ltr clTct:t" thQ

26

lnl

nrAsArmnntll)erfrrercxplnlrlcrltol.heselr:rlesttlrcottrtnlltea(l
.Srrtole llea.tittlls 80il) : "tlre nt-ltrgc eleetions tltnl' I I I t ltnve

l,eenf.,crrnlng-ollnl.ctlroselnwlrlchtheresrrltrrfl,hosent.lnl.go
elortkrns ls bnsicntly to shrrt ottl. the. nrltroril'v vttl'ors lt ls noI n

q,,""ti"i of rvhetlrer they wlll get ntote or k:ss or rvlrlther l'hc nln-

Jrrrlty voters wlll get nlol'e ol'less' lt ls n r;ttest'iott of sotne versll'q

notltlng,"



2c)

28

Bnrlog'y to i.hls ense ls l)ooa v' iltoore' ltrpt'a' ln wlrieh

ift"'."i,rt of nppo*is trphekl tho valitlit'y of nn at-large

rrrt.* ,r,fo* *i,i.t *i AOy' black rninrtrll'y electntl oltc

*n*fr"* to an eight-metnlrcr eil'y corrncil' Indeetl' in trttny

"n.* 
priot Lo Ci"tE ol Mobit'e involving ttJarge voting sys-

tems where the aggl'egate of fnelols was unquestionnbly

less favorablo t,o *inoi'ity voters than in this ease-mos[

p".ti"rrlr,.f.v, *ho."-no ifntft ei[lzen lt:rtl ever been eleetetl

untler the systetn---+hallenges to l'he voting plnns--wet'e

nrrnetheless heltl to bo insuficient' See' e'g'' Rlnclc V,?"',t,

i. M"Dorrouoh, stqtra; Ilen'dfi* '{' Joscltlt' sttql'a; t'il7t.ta

rt. Garrisort', sultra.; McGilt v' Gadstlert' Cotr'n'Lt1 Connrt'tt'

rir n.zA 277 (6ttt Cir. 19?6)' Antl it' is signifieant [hnt

tlto rSen:rts rnajoritj antl otlrer suppot'ters of mmenrletl

i""tii," 2 lroinbetl to these eascs-itrcltrtling Doua v' M.oora

--ns inrlications oi the way in which the new provision

wotrltl opelate. See, e'g', 
-Scnnte 

ltepor'[ ggi ] S-amta

Ilat.ringi ?96-?9G, z'gz iLcstinrony o[ Arrnand l)erfner) ;

id,. nt l?01-l?02 (colloqrry between Sen' Ma[hias arrtl

Assisl,nnt Al,[orney C"nutot Ileynotrls regartling Dytlal"

Aceortlingly, gir.r" the proven eleetoral slleeess that blaek

"rn,li,lnt 

".-liave 
harl ,,n,1". the rnul[irnernber system, the

rlistrict eottrt et'red by concltttling l'hal' rtso of tlrr[ systetrt

"l'esults" in n tlcnial of "eqtlal neeess" to tlre eleetornl

pt'oeess for minorities.
2. 'fhe tlistrict court correcl'ly holtl (J'S' App' 16n)

that proof of raeial bloc voting is the "lincltpin" of a

strecessful voto rlilul,ion claim' See Senlte Iteporb 33'nn

lltffifi$"",ffiil$t'ffi1
Ilowevet', l.lre rlist'ricl' eott rt urlolrt"J .,il:',tt:T,[:,,t fiil:
iilX",',ili;, -' ; ; ffi *i *r,' * " 

I ir' ryrr 
tr 11111": 

1,.': ::Ylll" l;
i"[' J :i['f',; [fi ;' ;; ;;"; ;;;; ill "-"'.,, J:::.,I:]:'::,,::
1i,""' 

"'r,iiu'lill 

iit" Xt'". ti 
" " * "" 

r'i r'rr' e l'u e n 
" i 1:]::l' 1,.'1"l::l.];

Lt.H'Ti ;iffi; i'i*i'' "t"'g in.tlre 
"'!l:':,.11'1,*"::

ko
t'osttlis in l'la"k n s' r'('r I

t)e,'son elee[ion *l'offi i* L::Ttl",-'i]t 
t;:; 

HItH,, :tl;

60 As lhe Court explnlrrerl ln ll'hilcoinb (403 U.S. nt l6$), whero

"l.lre fnllure of lhe ghetto to trnve teglslntlve sents ln proporlkrn

to lts populnttnn 
"ao,go, 

tuto n" n ftrnctlon of loslng eleeilons thnrr

of bullt-ln blns ngnlnst poor Negroe'o * r * ftlhe votlng power of

*ir,,li. t"tld"nls mny hnve been 'cnneelled ottt' * * r ltttt i'hls secms

o mct'o eugrhernlsm f,r, r'ofitit"f rtetent n[ tlre polls'" See nlso llttilatl

,Io'uish or.gs. v' Carny, d30 U.S. 144, l6G n.24 (10??) (plrrrallty

oplnlorr) ("lf votlng ,inu' nut follow rnt:lnl lltles' the whito Ior

ii^,'.rf rrt"" htts tltilc;;nson l'n complnln l'hnt the percentnge of

,rrr*i lr"" lor whll'esl ln hls tllstrk't hns beorr increnserl")'

It ls crroneorts, however, to eonclrtrle that proof of raelnl bkre

,.irr,"' ninf nr-u.lcnl irntletreproscntntlon togettrer nre stt'Ilclettt

Hil;: ,?T#'*nL.;;;";ii;i^t" t'eccives 5t!" ot trte vrtre in

tho whito.n,n*,"'iti'^"ti i$2" of. the vote in lho blnelt

",r*t",rirttV, 
nnrl tho"ltlrtek ertnrlitlato t'cceivc"s the l'cvel'sc'

[ho rlislricl, cottt'[ 
'*f 

ititf ft"ftf [hal'- t}c cotnnrttttity is

scucrely racirrll.y p"i-t'i"A' Thal' rlefinitiolr is ttnn<:t:ept-

nblo lrccnrtse "'t,heto wiit-ottrlott nlwny-s hc a rtw correl;t-

l.ion wil.h rnce in ^"v 
i"irl"g cnnrliilncv o[ :r tnittot'il'y

whoso l'acinl ot etlnic grorrp is -[al sntatl lret'certktge of

tlro t.olal voting r'"it"l'?tr'"i " t\''1 Cotor'ly llronch ot

NAACP v. Citv "'i'1)1'"titt"' 
748 F'Z:l l4?il' 1482 rr'16

( tll.lr Cir. leB4) rq,t,ti"g li::!r Y:.9i'v 
ol lat'tilr;ck' 7'ito

lr.Ztl 233, 234 (fittr Cir-"tOga) (lligginbollt:tttt' 'l'' .spc-

eially eorretrt't'ing) ); see 7'l;t'razns v' Clcrtrrl,tl's' 681 lr'

," **frft*ft n vlolntlon of nnlettrltxl Sectiorr 2' ns 'soltre eottt'ts lttvo

snlrt. See llcllillnr., zaS'fi'ztf nt 104:l; llnilul Slotrs v' Illar,,rtlrrt

()orttt.11 Crtntm;n,rrr o'itr^io^;' rr'i;o (lltlr Cir' lg8'l)' srrppoll'rrrs

of the Aet stal'crl tl'"U f"tlof t'f "'ntu 
[lxtlr. trttnrericttl ttttrlerteptc-

scnl,ntlon tnrl rnelnl r,r,rl.'r"ilug is esserrl,lul to esl.nlrtish n ser:lion

2 vlolnl.ion. soo I s"r,ri""tl"nrirgs 810-820 (l're,:rrerl stnlenrcnl:

.f Armnnrt I)crfner) i;;;,til^ti" iir orlg.lrrnl; ("nrnertrtctl Rrrr:tiorr 2'

like ll'lrila \. llallaslet, rrnnii"- "ttfy 
ln ihnt.srnnll cnl'cg.r'y ,I plnr:es

whero L'r:ro ;, u., rru"i.t,,i,ir,u "rrt"- 
of.Jxrlil.ics f.r tnirr,rilv v.trrrs,

rvltt:ro there t" ut,"nttv tt*"'ti tntfnf tllvlslon' ntxl rvhere lt ls slnrply

lmpossilrta for lninoril'y vol'ors to hnve nny niglrilicnrrt o1tltot'lttrtillt

rrnrler l.'a ele<:t'rrr "r"i;ttt';it 
ls"); nceorrl' ?'r'" iil' nt 2R? (Metn.-

rnntltttn of ltat,h 
" 

Ht*-' il-"""UIt" t'earlershi, (l.rrf' nn (llvll

Rlglrl.s); drl. nl' ran ii""i'rirrt''v-nr 'l"nqtrln 
(l' Avll:r' Assot:' (ien'

(jorrnsel, IUA|.I)li)lr);'i,t. nt I t84 (l'esl'inrorty- of l''rnnk I'nrker' l)ir''

Vol.lrrg ttlshts l"'i"'i";';;;;;-" oonrnt' f.r (livil ltlslrts lln(ler

Lnw).



30

Supp. 1320, l35t-1362 (N.I)''Iex' l{)84) (l'hree-jrrdge

"ru.tl 
(tes[ is whether "stteh hloe voLing as mny exist"

opel'ates so its [o "pet'sistent'ly--rlctctt Iminoril'yl cnntli-

,loto"") ; necot'tl, Sirlrtntr' v' Uplmnt', slip op' l0 n'4'n'

Unrler. ihu ,lirt,,.i.t couIl,,8 rlefini[iolr, virl,uall.y any elee-

tornl rlistrict in the eottntry nriglrt bo tlcemerl to sttffer

"substantively significtnt" raci:tl bloe voting' Coltgress

helievetl th:rt l,he eontrnry wns [t'lte, ltorvever' See Sennte

ifnl,urt 33 (irr "lnosl, conlmtrrrities" mitlot'i[y clrnrlirl*t'es

"rer:eive substnntinl sttpport from wlril'e vol'et's")'oB

t, In rrrost vole dllutlon ca8e8, a plnlrrti,T cnn ostnhlislt n prirnn

/ tr.l",'"^"o'-"f .n"inf bloc votlng by rrsing n stntlntlcnl nnnlysls of
( ,"iir," 

'".tior,"-ir,nt 
.n-pnr".- L5e rnce of n cnntlirl^te rvith 11e

L^".',:r'ir," ,"tl.r. A defenrlnlrt enn l,hrrn lntrorl.ce its own study,

l-ri,ur'r.r,* oti,er fnct,rrs lrto Rceottnt, to rrrSut n plnintlff's primn

I ;;;i;'.;;;.' n". 
^ 

,iir.,,rston, tn n rtilrerent eorrt.rrxt, of ilre type of

I ;;;ilrJ -i,,,i1"" ihnt 
"nu 

lte ttserl, see illcclcskev' v' '/'nnt' 68o

I '"'i,*rl'lil;;;; iio (N.I). Gn. l$84), nlr'rt, ?63 F'2rl 8?? (llr;h

Clr. 1986) (cn bnnc). Ruourt to suet nnnlyses hns been npprovtrtl'

Ao .Irr<lges Illgglnlrcthnm nnrt Wlerlonr hnve cogently obscrvod' "rnce

or nntlonnl orlgtn ,ttny ;nsk n trost of otlrcr explnnntot'y vnrlnbles"

, lnclrrtllnc "exprlnnntory fnctors r l * ns lnlrrltlvely obviotts ns cnlrl-

I ili;;;;";iii,;;;;';'tv tlentlllcnl'lon' ltreornc" nretlln use nrensttrerl

I i;;';";,;;r-u;;;, ;;"' klentlflcntlort' or tllsl'nncc thnt n ennrlklnto

I ii;J;;;,Jp".ir"utni'prectnct" (tones, ?30 rr.z(t nr 235 (lllssln-

lil*;;.'.i.,'-tr.;i"tit eorrerrrrlns) i Lcc ()o:rn'tv' ?'t8 F'2rl nt 1482

[-( Wlsrlom, .I.) 1.

nr See I Senale Ilearings 821 (emphnsls nrtrtorl) (l'repnred Slnte-

tnent of Armnntl tltrfrre"r) ("Seetlon 2' of cottrse' rvlll npply only

ln tlrose plnces where theie is nlrenrty nn exl'raorilinor'7 nnxrttnt of

Irnelnllttlvlslorr.,).-otherrvltnesst:snlsrlrlescrlllerlrnelnllrloe
;;li;; ln less nbsolrrte lerms thnn l'he rtlstrlct court" Sce id' nt

BOG (l'repnrerl Stnielnent of Vllmn S' Mnrtlnez' Preslrlclrt'

MALDEF) (nrnpt,nsta ndtterl) ("'lt ls n sll'rrntlon where' rvlton

cnnrlirlntesoralnerontrneesBrerunrtitlgforl'lrasnmoofllco'l'he
voterr wlll ltll orriltn'i" uu'tn for the cnnrlldnte of l'hclr orvtt rnee"')

(cltotlon omltterl) 
" 

i'i. al 64!l (testlmony of Prof' Strsnn A' Mne-

Mntttts (emphasls "iti"al i"tn"tnt polnrizntlon * * * ocettrs wltett

eltlzens of one 
^.lnf 

'gt"up 
unilorinlu vol'c for one enndlrlnt'e nnd

eltizens of nnother 
"nJroi 

*.oup .unilttt'ntl11 vote for nnother' *-r *

i tf ltre hasle prrrJxrse'"i lit"-t"tt Ifor enlt:rrintlng rnelnl polnrlzntlonl

lL i" ,r.l"r-iu.'r.,tottr"" rnce ls lhc printa,y antl erchtsioa deler'

lrrt-rri "i ir,rirlo,*r votlng tla:lslorrs neroas tlme ln nnv glven cotn-

lmunlty").

31

If white vol.et's are willirrg to el'oss racitl lines in srrf-

neient rrrrrnb6's l,lrnt; "minrtii1y cllrtlitlnt.es ltlol ltgt lose

eleetions solel.y heeallsc of llteit' raee" (llogcrs' 468 tI'S'

;;;;rti, l.hen' iI is lrrgr:ty irrelev:rttI whet'her the blrrck

""r,,ti,t*io 
woul(l h,rvo lvt n t:ven if thc elec[iort "ltatl betltt

i,;i; ;;;"; only the whil'e vo[ets" (J'S' App' 40n) ' . Irt

tlrtl, case, i'a.lttty poltrizerl voting,. l'o the extenl' l'hn[ it
;;iJ",'is'nnt "thl t,ve.rirli,g crite'ion in vntirtg" (l)oue'

639 F.z(l at l166). lt was firrnly sottlctl priot' to l!)82

ift-t ,, person lr:rrl l.lre righ[ to lrc-t'epresetrl'etl by trreln-

fror. of nnv p:rrticttlflr gl'ollp l'o which lre belongs or to

fnrl,icipnl.e in nn clccl'oi'rtl process l'hltl mtxinlizes his

ehlttees oI Stleeess, ei[lrer ris tt votel' or il e:rllrlirlate'

nntt,"r; t,lre princililc rcpenl'etlly entlorsul wrr$ thc riglrt

in 1r,,r'ti"ipal,e lrr an 
"l,,ctntrrl 

process-to vol'e' firsl :urtl

inr-r,r,,*t,'trttt :rlso to join a poiitiell Pflty' to ;xrrticipate
in it, onnl,'s, [o heeorio n 

""ntlitl*Le 
(Wtt'itco?nl" 403 U'S'

*i iao-f fol-in which there is no "buil[-itt bias" ngainst

ilre oppn,'tunity l.o plrticipale (irt':rt ll-r3)''"' Arnentletl

Sect,ion 2 reallirnre,f tl,o*o prineiples' Sce Scna[e Ileport

ii-za, go. II l,htrs follows l'hat where "bltcks and whilcs

alike'have rejecletl rnee ns [he overritling eriteriott itt

,niing" 1Doai,539 tr.z(l at 1165-1166), then, since ntr

,r"t, i,t uitt-in bias" exists, "minority citttrlitlaLcs I will I

not lose eleetiotls solely becnuse of their. t'trce" (Ilolcl's'

a6g U.S. at,628), nntl the political pt'oeess is' lty rlelilri-

iinn, "oq,,nlly open to p*r'l'icipal'ion"-.y rnilroril'ics (lA hilv'

412 U.S. ot ZCO; uni lltritcom'b, 403 U'S' tt l6il)' Ix-
;!-.-rrrrl+,!he rclllJ."I S-rltfl*l:

;oSecCilUollloltile,4'lGU'S'nt?6-80(plrrrnlltyoltittiorr);
irt. nt 80 (Sievens, .1., cotrcrrrrlrrg in the jurlgnrurt); itl' nt III n'?

iftt.*fr,,ff,.I.,,tl"*,,nl.lug')i tlnited 'll,utislt' Orgs" 4lO U'S nt 165-

iai <r,fr.nflty oplnlon); It"l,'',426 U'S' at 130 n'8; lVh'itconb' 4o,n

ii.S.,it f40-lG0 I Tattlor v. ltcl(cithet,49$ F'2rl 893' $0rr (6th (iir'

f Oiii iWft,,o., l.); Tri'tzer v' llcl(eitttor" 400 F'2d l$l' l0? (lith

Clr. t0?S) (llrorvn, C'J')'

ffi etl-ctt ot rrrcial Pr



m ul l.i -membe11[5!r'!g$ tle-'

n"o"s to tlre electurt! Plry

ry.[oral success l,hab black 
, 
euntlitlates

rr..i.'^rt willr srrts[.."''ii'ii-*ilrt^ tupt'ntt in-It9**o

;fu,ltxulk#llfffiU;ilFi .Ai*t'i"t*-it 
is dir-

n cul t r.o i ma gi ne -";'.riJi;' ?ll,'.*' 
*::',i'fi ffi#[l:

ll;:il,"il;i,,'. z*
ress Buceessrur in rrffi-3:i[f#*$fi:

cflso, !r bl:rck cntrrlitlztto t'ttn Itnol'l)('sc(l l('t' it (trirt'ti'rLti 'rr r'r'

which is sigrrilicat'''i'""'*-"'[he nrake-rrn o[ tlre cantlirlate

slato is inriictiilvo ";li'; 
voting strength of a tlistrict's

c6nsLitrrencies. l"agte 22 no[e 46' su2''fl' It' is also stg-

nificant, as the t"t'i]t'J-opittion reveals' [hat there are no

present lnt'riet's * ;:il:;l;''-gitt''"Linn' party afliliatiott'

or eantlitlaey; no n"ii-ti"gf" shot voting or eqttiv:tlent

rertuiremetrt rt*t r"tt" *;i;i;y;ti' ;:rrrrlirhi'e sl:rt'ing 1111s nr)r

hecrr tlorninatetl bylu'l;i;';t;i"tt'; ntril l"lrere is rro tnnjo[ity

vol.o 
'eqtrit'etrtenL 

i;"g:;';'';i eio"tinn*' S,tno or lll of

llreso frr:[o,., *o,.o',,.,1*iiv r,,".onI itt trt'e-(;il'u ol lllohile

case-s itr which '"fd-"t"i"ircr 
rlistricts were invnlirlatetl ot'

wet'o oxprassrxl'i;l';;;; tj;;l.q''":l'' consitlet'nl'iott of l'lre

I $82 amenOnlont"'" I'; t'*ti fit"rin]:- .f"t 
l'lrei I' enacl'mcn ['

See, e.g., lvlti'lc,4i; U''C' "'t 
t;zl s-z'ti lYollnce' v' lfottsc'

l-,15 F.2rl ofo, azg-i'zi iit-i.r Cir' 
-10?6)' 

vaerttetl and re-

rnrrntletl on 'l'her i':'t"tit' 
a'i.1t,p 9.4? (t$?(i); zintnter'

4Br lr.z(r *t rgorrlii,ia, .r wrilcunb v. crrari.s, sltpt'n;

BIrclc Volars,l''d l;';tl'J ot n''nttrl* 608 F'z(l a[ ll12;

Senato lleporl' l; 
'';;;i-"ttott'o.Report' 3t n'10!-r' 'l'ho

nbseneo of sttelt ;;t:;;;;J i' r'nttitipirl'iort in the elecl"ofal

l)r(rcess, coupletl 
'*liit it'o nnrtings tnatle by l'lre cotrt'[

regtrrling ttto'uc"n*t l'lrat' black-ennrlitlt['es h:rve hatl arrrl

ths white *ti'f tttil1""t-Lftnt theso crttrlitlates have re'

ceived in llottso rjilii:i;' :tii anrl Sentle l)isl'rict 22' sttp-

ports t,he .nn"ttttTni''iit"t'- i'rt" mull'i-memlrcr systetn hts

**, n-Ut""rent blru:k cnnrllrllrte rec'elvctl Z|"f' alriil 287o oI L\e

white vol.e ln,,"";;i,";;;'n,,,t gn,,urnt.clccl.lon, rcsp.clivclv' ln

Sennte l)lslrlct 
"' 

iii"'i'itt'*'*nti'n'.t'r [.c fottr-,et's.n tlclegati.n

f rorn l$?t-r-!0'n *""i""""'ili "t' tttn *t'ito vo.es in tlre l9?B

prlnrnrv antl 4l/";';;;";t;';"1 ekrcU.n' A seconrl blnck c^rrrlitlnte

(t'otk) rnn in f oiz 
^rrtf 

'n^t""'"! l?% of l'he white votc irl lhr'

Irlmnrv nrrrl !l3ol' ; ii'; o;;";"1 ekctkrn'. J S' ADI!' 'l2rt' IVhrrcove r'

rvhlle hlncks 
""'n'i'ii'"oi;: 

if.tl" Iopttlrrtkrn of thc r:itv of ('llrar-

lotte, n l'ln"t nemt":'nl-lc cnntlklnte rvas-electrrrl tnnyor rvltlr 3l|%' of

the whlt'o *" .Jlii'ili'""';i;i;; n"ptrlrticntr' 'I's' App' 36.' 'l'lris

lisrrre ls *r*ulnt^'l'J'iln;"t:"': t;;'t;''tttui tn n henrl-to-herrrl c.trlcst

moro lhnn t'no-u'l'i'ni'ii'o *r'rt" vol'cts were rvllllng l'o vole for n

trlaek cnnrtltln* 
'"'lti^'t"iin"'trintrt' 

nlso holtl 28'60/" ol the rlistrlct

nnrl 16.?%,'r th::l;:i;;ol'"rW "r,uusel 
rents rr,nr le??-llt8t' J's'

APP' S{n'

lT_:,i:":i'iflrJ,i':l;f'ff ;ilr**i!:,Ll'u*oriistiretsw:rr-
r ar r t n o d i lt qr:uil' r:c#tt- [dslrrl-w-'U$1-f'f acf - c'nai t-f l t e s

Ftffi nO;i**6ffi ilot-nl'-rr-:g!rg-*t1l!9't{'rnotto

oo rn ilouse r)isrrtr:rs zt, zt, nrrrl !le, y1':i:.,ll1J'1,""ilil*:ii,lffi
fr.".'ui""tri i^ tttttrtbe t's nt lenst ns grc'nt ^l 

*'i"lll..,r.ii"",rt'*tauttut

hH;::, ilHi; li:l,l'll;l.iJJ I iifi'l'If .l:;Iii^'i; i n tt'c r oz s

,rlntnrv (lllue) t"t"l;;i';;;;- Ii'r'r'o wltlla v,te' lrrrt le lntet'

Incr"r,"etl hls strnre :l"f"';t;'iJttlio "'to"in 
lll80 lo ill/" ln tlte

;ffi;' nn,i, o z, u'l',ffi :*l' ;::;:il:. ;ll[{ llU] j i:l i1?:ll)82 hc ngnin ittcrcn::t'"'l-"1::-:.-,i'-"..rut elect,rtt nntl wns re-

: ilf; : ]F T[' i 
^'1 

" il ll illr' !l {itii5r i:*lr inu'*l:
rtii,l,;,'$ft :,".:l:*:i:iili:i-:;it:rffi ;ti*,,i*ln the 1$?8 gcnertrl '

*th' l' x ;'L:"^';' ^* T: ::Hl 
"l[t fi i' 

;; ;: ;: ; it' J * t' t t " n'l"

lrr the 1$80 g.trernl "i"llt"I,,'""U 
3?7' anrl'4i11: :1rl-i,iltill;;::

;;#;,;i;;,; nnrl genernt eleetiotr' t''"'tlL'"'r'iiir,.J"r,'il",r tn ltr82

["H::xtu't1:lluT'!:,Tiii"*#id::]&1]',i:,1:
I$Jrtd[;:1";:l';':"J,:T.{ii1i"'l-.n.[ii:?r;lll,I'li
ilit';,,!5,illl,,|;:lT:'J,,,,1:11,ff 

::IXJi'li'"'*"'i"'"otes-(33e')

thnn blnck ""t"" t''ili]'i;;';;;;';"nl elecrlon' 't's' Alp' 'l2n-43:t'

6, f n ,(lrtse Disrrtrt rG. the l';lntk r.ptese;'lll'1,l,|,o1;tti,,ttll,'"

;::"# i':rl,ti{-',i';lj,'[t":'"it iit*]]i'f-*iillrnce reteiverl 307o

n"",ttrrf elect'ion' rtrspect'ivcly.'flrls wtts
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